{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7131634955","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","title":"Eliciting desirable difficulty through font manipulation: effects on metacognitive judgments, cognitive load and learning outcomes","display_name":"Eliciting desirable difficulty through font manipulation: effects on metacognitive judgments, cognitive load and learning outcomes","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7131634955","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S166722454","display_name":"Education and Information Technologies","issn_l":"1360-2357","issn":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education and Information Technologies","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081787339","display_name":"Esra Barut Tu\u011ftekin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0109-0581"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20126385","display_name":"Inonu University","ror":"https://ror.org/04asck240","country_code":"TR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20126385"]}],"countries":["TR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Esra Barut Tugtekin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Distance Education Application and Research Center, \u0130n\u00f6n\u00fc University, Malatya, 44280, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0109-0581","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Distance Education Application and Research Center, \u0130n\u00f6n\u00fc University, Malatya, 44280, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20126385"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053984393","display_name":"Ufuk Tu\u011ftekin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0129-3477"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I133743585","display_name":"Anadolu University","ror":"https://ror.org/05nz37n09","country_code":"TR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I133743585"]}],"countries":["TR"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Ufuk Tugtekin","raw_affiliation_strings":["The Department of Digital Game Design, Faculty of Fine Arts, Anadolu University, Anadolu University, Eski\u015fehir, 26470, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0129-3477","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"The Department of Digital Game Design, Faculty of Fine Arts, Anadolu University, Anadolu University, Eski\u015fehir, 26470, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I133743585"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028159235","display_name":"Ula\u015f \u0130L\u0130\u00c7","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4213-8713"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I48843708","display_name":"Pamukkale University","ror":"https://ror.org/01etz1309","country_code":"TR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I48843708"]}],"countries":["TR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ulas \u0130li\u0307c","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Education & Instructional Technology, Pamukkale University, Pamukkale University, Denizli, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4213-8713","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Education & Instructional Technology, Pamukkale University, Pamukkale University, Denizli, T\u00fcrkiye, Turkey","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I48843708"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5053984393"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I133743585"],"apc_list":{"value":3590,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3590},"apc_paid":{"value":3590,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3590},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.16499664,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"31","issue":"9","first_page":"2787","last_page":"2814"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11516","display_name":"Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes","score":0.6664000153541565,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11516","display_name":"Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes","score":0.6664000153541565,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10636","display_name":"Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods","score":0.045899998396635056,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12070","display_name":"Writing and Handwriting Education","score":0.03970000147819519,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/metacognition","display_name":"Metacognition","score":0.7774999737739563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-load","display_name":"Cognitive load","score":0.6987000107765198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/assertion","display_name":"Assertion","score":0.6568999886512756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognition","display_name":"Cognition","score":0.6425999999046326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/instructional-design","display_name":"Instructional design","score":0.6013000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/educational-technology","display_name":"Educational technology","score":0.4343000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-assisted-instruction","display_name":"Computer-Assisted Instruction","score":0.400299996137619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/teaching-method","display_name":"Teaching method","score":0.3912000060081482}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118147538","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126970","display_name":"Metacognition","level":3,"score":0.7774999737739563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.7080000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61641136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1107019","display_name":"Cognitive load","level":3,"score":0.6987000107765198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C40422974","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741248","display_name":"Assertion","level":2,"score":0.6568999886512756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.6425999999046326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.6087999939918518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159456220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q667334","display_name":"Instructional design","level":2,"score":0.6013000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C16443162","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068473","display_name":"Educational technology","level":2,"score":0.4343000054359436},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2909807104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1068473","display_name":"Computer-Assisted Instruction","level":2,"score":0.400299996137619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C88610354","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1813494","display_name":"Teaching method","level":2,"score":0.3912000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22467394","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q849359","display_name":"Multidisciplinary approach","level":2,"score":0.3716999888420105},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148220186","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7111912","display_name":"Outcome (game theory)","level":2,"score":0.36640000343322754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21963081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11337567","display_name":"Working memory","level":3,"score":0.35280001163482666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.3215000033378601},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781206393","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2748419","display_name":"Academic achievement","level":2,"score":0.29330000281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.28540000319480896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780468074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16628824","display_name":"Digital learning","level":2,"score":0.27900001406669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48164120","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4491893","display_name":"Concept learning","level":2,"score":0.2766999900341034},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776291881","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6423378","display_name":"Knowledge level","level":2,"score":0.274399995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781410774","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17008186","display_name":"Cognitive strategy","level":3,"score":0.2619999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.25999999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27574286","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320723","display_name":"Variables","level":2,"score":0.25690001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.25290000438690186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C76188268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1783165","display_name":"Context effect","level":3,"score":0.25189998745918274}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S166722454","display_name":"Education and Information Technologies","issn_l":"1360-2357","issn":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education and Information Technologies","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10639-026-13915-3.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S166722454","display_name":"Education and Information Technologies","issn_l":"1360-2357","issn":["1360-2357","1573-7608"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education and Information Technologies","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8833151459693909,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality Education"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320325357","display_name":"Anadolu \u00dcniversitesi","ror":"https://ror.org/05nz37n09"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7131634955.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7131634955.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":74,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1488235418","https://openalex.org/W1508693161","https://openalex.org/W1598182466","https://openalex.org/W1883851957","https://openalex.org/W1964672712","https://openalex.org/W1996847964","https://openalex.org/W2003788177","https://openalex.org/W2004599511","https://openalex.org/W2016981279","https://openalex.org/W2030617327","https://openalex.org/W2049367096","https://openalex.org/W2053014611","https://openalex.org/W2057650742","https://openalex.org/W2064749740","https://openalex.org/W2064996814","https://openalex.org/W2069889405","https://openalex.org/W2076413750","https://openalex.org/W2081811286","https://openalex.org/W2081929717","https://openalex.org/W2085329902","https://openalex.org/W2085599373","https://openalex.org/W2087484885","https://openalex.org/W2088431089","https://openalex.org/W2090088049","https://openalex.org/W2095632701","https://openalex.org/W2096036274","https://openalex.org/W2098813016","https://openalex.org/W2111434281","https://openalex.org/W2114846242","https://openalex.org/W2118000394","https://openalex.org/W2119274223","https://openalex.org/W2134907585","https://openalex.org/W2137576942","https://openalex.org/W2138921773","https://openalex.org/W2145404435","https://openalex.org/W2152464533","https://openalex.org/W2156402098","https://openalex.org/W2156724938","https://openalex.org/W2168619978","https://openalex.org/W2169211232","https://openalex.org/W2193903447","https://openalex.org/W2259601584","https://openalex.org/W2300090202","https://openalex.org/W2310375029","https://openalex.org/W2326560350","https://openalex.org/W2592662635","https://openalex.org/W2595076364","https://openalex.org/W2610938420","https://openalex.org/W2771477454","https://openalex.org/W2791657249","https://openalex.org/W2809417050","https://openalex.org/W2810578736","https://openalex.org/W2911808944","https://openalex.org/W2942168121","https://openalex.org/W2950167457","https://openalex.org/W2981867448","https://openalex.org/W3000479319","https://openalex.org/W3022241151","https://openalex.org/W3045702284","https://openalex.org/W3089652633","https://openalex.org/W3105685123","https://openalex.org/W3167244227","https://openalex.org/W3213684477","https://openalex.org/W3214554164","https://openalex.org/W4210795595","https://openalex.org/W4241819366","https://openalex.org/W4255697435","https://openalex.org/W4281263546","https://openalex.org/W4292157289","https://openalex.org/W4293224791","https://openalex.org/W4366430409","https://openalex.org/W4384126440","https://openalex.org/W4405953046","https://openalex.org/W4405954486"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Recent":[1],"multidisciplinary":[2],"research":[3],"has":[4],"investigated":[5,49],"whether":[6],"incorporating":[7],"desirable":[8,36,140,159],"difficulty":[9,37,141,160],"into":[10],"instructional":[11,95,145,164,176],"materials":[12,96,165],"can":[13],"enhance":[14],"learning":[15,44,180],"outcomes":[16],"through":[17],"minimally":[18],"demanding":[19],"interventions.":[20],"One":[21],"notable":[22],"assertion":[23],"in":[24,143,162,178],"this":[25,50],"literature":[26],"is":[27],"that":[28,132,151],"font":[29],"manipulation,":[30],"particularly":[31],"disfluent":[32],"fonts,":[33],"may":[34],"induce":[35],"and":[38,66,73,166],"support":[39],"learning.":[40],"In":[41],"a":[42,53],"computer-assisted":[43,144,163],"environment,":[45],"the":[46,148,168],"current":[47],"study":[48],"claim":[51],"using":[52],"between-subjects":[54],"experimental":[55],"design.":[56],"The":[57,105],"primary":[58],"dependent":[59],"variables":[60],"were":[61,85,127],"achievement,":[62],"retention,":[63],"cognitive":[64],"load,":[65],"judgments":[67],"of":[68,82,90],"learning,":[69],"with":[70,94,98],"prior":[71],"knowledge":[72],"working":[74],"memory":[75],"capacity":[76],"serving":[77],"as":[78],"covariates.":[79],"A":[80],"total":[81],"165":[83],"participants":[84],"randomly":[86],"assigned":[87],"to":[88,137,156,175],"one":[89],"three":[91,125],"treatment":[92,112],"groups,":[93],"manipulated":[97],"Arial,":[99],"Helvetica,":[100],"or":[101],"Sans":[102],"Forgetica":[103],"fonts.":[104],"results":[106],"revealed":[107],"no":[108],"significant":[109],"differences":[110],"across":[111],"groups":[113],"on":[114],"any":[115],"outcome":[116],"measure":[117],"after":[118],"controlling":[119],"for":[120,170],"individual":[121],"differences.":[122],"Accordingly,":[123],"all":[124],"hypotheses":[126],"rejected.":[128],"These":[129],"findings":[130,149],"indicate":[131],"font-based":[133,152],"manipulations":[134,153],"are":[135,154],"insufficient":[136,155],"reliably":[138,157],"generate":[139,158],"effects":[142,161],"materials.":[146],"Overall,":[147],"reveal":[150],"underscore":[167],"need":[169],"more":[171],"cognitively":[172],"substantive":[173],"approaches":[174],"design":[177],"digital":[179],"environments.":[181]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-08-26T07:47:46.906454","created_date":"2026-02-27T00:00:00"}
