{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7117327599","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","title":"Cryptography-based privacy-preserving large language models: a lifecycle survey of frameworks, methods, and future directions","display_name":"Cryptography-based privacy-preserving large language models: a lifecycle survey of frameworks, methods, and future directions","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7117327599","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S122814990","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","issn_l":"0269-2821","issn":["0269-2821","1573-7462"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5081531179","display_name":"Jinglong Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9705-7913"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jinglong Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007250648","display_name":"Yehong Zhang","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yehong Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108148866","display_name":"Zhuo Zhang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1835-5411"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhuo Zhang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5097194130","display_name":"Shiyu Liu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204831749","display_name":"Southwestern University of Finance and Economics","ror":"https://ror.org/04ewct822","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204831749"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shiyu Liu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204831749"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121180421","display_name":"Ye Dong","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ye Dong","raw_affiliation_strings":["National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5121333229","display_name":"Haoran Li","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200769079","display_name":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/00q4vv597","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}],"countries":["HK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Haoran Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200769079"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100397984","display_name":"Yue Yu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7960-3968"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yue Yu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100460778","display_name":"Hui Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3913-815X"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hui Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048741256","display_name":"Xun Bo Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3191-7191"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I204983213","display_name":"Harbin Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/01yqg2h08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210136793","display_name":"Peng Cheng Laboratory","ror":"https://ror.org/03qdqbt06","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xun Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pengcheng Laboratory, Shenzhen, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210136793"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5107628643","display_name":"Zenglin Xu","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I129335695","display_name":"Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04xa4q582","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129335695"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I24943067","display_name":"Fudan University","ror":"https://ror.org/013q1eq08","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I24943067"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210149979","display_name":"Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/05stnhf77","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210149979"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zenglin Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Fudan University, Shanghai, China","Shanghai Academy of AI for Science, Shanghai, China"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Fudan University, Shanghai, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I24943067"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Shanghai Academy of AI for Science, Shanghai, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210149979","https://openalex.org/I129335695"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":10,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5081531179"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I204983213","https://openalex.org/I4210136793"],"apc_list":{"value":2490,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":3090},"apc_paid":{"value":2490,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":3090},"fwci":2.3568,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93301218,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"59","issue":"2","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.30550000071525574,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10764","display_name":"Privacy-Preserving Technologies in Data","score":0.30550000071525574,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14347","display_name":"Big Data and Digital Economy","score":0.20329999923706055,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10237","display_name":"Cryptography and Data Security","score":0.08709999918937683,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.5766000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/safeguarding","display_name":"Safeguarding","score":0.570900022983551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homomorphic-encryption","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","score":0.45719999074935913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key","display_name":"Key (lock)","score":0.45320001244544983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.412200003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encryption","display_name":"Encryption","score":0.40459999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/limiting","display_name":"Limiting","score":0.3896999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/big-data","display_name":"Big data","score":0.3547999858856201}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6991999745368958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5766000151634216},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776743756","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5097921","display_name":"Safeguarding","level":2,"score":0.570900022983551},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.5077999830245972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.4636000096797943},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158338273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2154943","display_name":"Homomorphic encryption","level":3,"score":0.45719999074935913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.45320001244544983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.4325999915599823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.412200003862381},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148730421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q141090","display_name":"Encryption","level":2,"score":0.40459999442100525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188198153","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1613840","display_name":"Limiting","level":2,"score":0.3896999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75684735","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q858810","display_name":"Big data","level":2,"score":0.3547999858856201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123201435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q456632","display_name":"Information privacy","level":2,"score":0.33320000767707825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10511746","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q899388","display_name":"Data security","level":3,"score":0.33009999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.31439998745918274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.29989999532699585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33762810","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q461671","display_name":"Data integrity","level":2,"score":0.2881999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15927051","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q246593","display_name":"Cryptographic primitive","level":4,"score":0.2718000113964081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C527648132","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189900","display_name":"Information security","level":2,"score":0.2687000036239624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.2630000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C195094911","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14167904","display_name":"Process management","level":1,"score":0.25850000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C528167355","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q258307","display_name":"National security","level":2,"score":0.2515999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108827166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175975","display_name":"Internet privacy","level":1,"score":0.25110000371932983}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S122814990","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","issn_l":"0269-2821","issn":["0269-2821","1573-7462"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-025-11466-6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S122814990","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","issn_l":"0269-2821","issn":["0269-2821","1573-7462"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Artificial Intelligence Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","score":0.6719706058502197}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3973095464","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"72495122","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G4777122964","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62206139","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5661046512","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"62472125","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","funder_display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320321001","display_name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","ror":"https://ror.org/01h0zpd94"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":89,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W44936433","https://openalex.org/W173953576","https://openalex.org/W1499934958","https://openalex.org/W1524288918","https://openalex.org/W1837145606","https://openalex.org/W2016443801","https://openalex.org/W2027595342","https://openalex.org/W2051267297","https://openalex.org/W2088492763","https://openalex.org/W2112796928","https://openalex.org/W2141420453","https://openalex.org/W2157331557","https://openalex.org/W2177209050","https://openalex.org/W2194775991","https://openalex.org/W2255466643","https://openalex.org/W2535690855","https://openalex.org/W2768174108","https://openalex.org/W2799040448","https://openalex.org/W2810013968","https://openalex.org/W2963341956","https://openalex.org/W2963446712","https://openalex.org/W2990885002","https://openalex.org/W2993032149","https://openalex.org/W2995022099","https://openalex.org/W3096738375","https://openalex.org/W3108672920","https://openalex.org/W3129176636","https://openalex.org/W3130108574","https://openalex.org/W3133749795","https://openalex.org/W3138815606","https://openalex.org/W3174770825","https://openalex.org/W3178659068","https://openalex.org/W3212932635","https://openalex.org/W4205991051","https://openalex.org/W4236786653","https://openalex.org/W4281806276","https://openalex.org/W4283696039","https://openalex.org/W4319780902","https://openalex.org/W4361289889","https://openalex.org/W4366548330","https://openalex.org/W4385412524","https://openalex.org/W4385567113","https://openalex.org/W4385572063","https://openalex.org/W4385573069","https://openalex.org/W4386764217","https://openalex.org/W4387319330","https://openalex.org/W4388971978","https://openalex.org/W4389160811","https://openalex.org/W4389518968","https://openalex.org/W4389519349","https://openalex.org/W4390872692","https://openalex.org/W4390872915","https://openalex.org/W4391974622","https://openalex.org/W4392903998","https://openalex.org/W4393160750","https://openalex.org/W4396721167","https://openalex.org/W4399848789","https://openalex.org/W4400121015","https://openalex.org/W4400382079","https://openalex.org/W4400915925","https://openalex.org/W4401042536","https://openalex.org/W4401822233","https://openalex.org/W4402263660","https://openalex.org/W4402684292","https://openalex.org/W4402692877","https://openalex.org/W4403161272","https://openalex.org/W4404782637","https://openalex.org/W4405021351","https://openalex.org/W4406080953","https://openalex.org/W4406302454","https://openalex.org/W4407922392","https://openalex.org/W4408520086","https://openalex.org/W4408749899","https://openalex.org/W4408750063","https://openalex.org/W4408750076","https://openalex.org/W4408889177","https://openalex.org/W4409362915","https://openalex.org/W4409381867","https://openalex.org/W4410062040","https://openalex.org/W4410637834","https://openalex.org/W4411086884","https://openalex.org/W4411337383","https://openalex.org/W4411337732","https://openalex.org/W4412130408","https://openalex.org/W4412404128","https://openalex.org/W4412944742","https://openalex.org/W4415800460","https://openalex.org/W4416036127","https://openalex.org/W4416549516"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"rapid":[1,24],"development":[2],"of":[3,13,30,45,62,98,112,153,172,180],"Transformer-based":[4],"large":[5],"language":[6],"models":[7],"(LLMs)":[8],"has":[9,26],"made":[10],"them":[11],"one":[12],"the":[14,28,42,59,96,130,169,178],"most":[15],"critical":[16],"technological":[17],"infrastructures":[18],"in":[19,64],"modern":[20],"society.":[21],"However,":[22],"this":[23,146],"deployment":[25],"transformed":[27],"risk":[29],"privacy":[31,97],"breaches":[32],"from":[33],"a":[34,38,150],"theoretical":[35],"concern":[36],"into":[37],"systemic":[39],"threat":[40],"spanning":[41],"entire":[43],"lifecycle":[44],"LLMs.":[46],"These":[47,104],"risks":[48],"continually":[49],"challenge":[50],"existing":[51,154],"data":[52,100,115],"compliance":[53],"and":[54,67,79,101,118,142,157],"regulatory":[55],"frameworks,":[56],"directly":[57],"limiting":[58],"large-scale":[60],"adoption":[61],"LLMs":[63,102,136],"highly":[65],"sensitive":[66,99],"heavily":[68],"regulated":[69],"industries.":[70],"Cryptographic":[71],"technologies,":[72],"such":[73],"as":[74],"fully":[75],"homomorphic":[76],"encryption":[77],"(FHE)":[78],"secure":[80],"multi-party":[81],"computation":[82],"(MPC),":[83],"have":[84,107],"garnered":[85],"significant":[86],"attention":[87],"due":[88],"to":[89,133,163],"their":[90,139],"provable":[91],"security":[92],"guarantees,":[93],"theoretically":[94],"safeguarding":[95],"weights.":[103],"cryptographic":[105],"techniques":[106],"rapidly":[108],"permeated":[109],"key":[110],"stages":[111],"LLMs,":[113],"including":[114],"selection,":[116],"fine-tuning,":[117],"inference.":[119],"Despite":[120],"these":[121],"advancements,":[122],"there":[123],"is":[124],"currently":[125],"no":[126],"comprehensive":[127,151],"survey":[128],"summarizing":[129],"work":[131],"related":[132],"cryptography-based":[134],"privacy-preserving":[135],"(CPLMs),":[137],"leaving":[138],"research":[140,156],"isolated":[141],"fragmented.":[143],"To":[144],"fill":[145],"gap,":[147],"We":[148],"provide":[149],"review":[152],"CPLMs":[155,173,182],"systematically":[158],"classifies":[159],"them,":[160],"enabling":[161],"researchers":[162],"effectively":[164],"coordinate":[165],"optimization":[166],"strategies":[167],"for":[168,189],"efficient":[170],"design":[171],"algorithms.":[174],"Finally,":[175],"based":[176],"on":[177],"limitations":[179],"current":[181],"research,":[183],"we":[184],"outline":[185],"several":[186],"promising":[187],"directions":[188],"future":[190],"exploration.":[191]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-04-09T08:11:56.329763","created_date":"2025-12-26T00:00:00"}
