{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4413744144","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","title":"Evaluation of the maturity of LLMs in the cybersecurity domain","display_name":"Evaluation of the maturity of LLMs in the cybersecurity domain","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-08-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4413744144","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S164062316","display_name":"International Journal of Information Security","issn_l":"1615-5262","issn":["1615-5262","1615-5270"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Information Security","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119447687","display_name":"Tiago Concei\u00e7\u00e3o","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210145968","display_name":"The Navigator (Portugal)","ror":"https://ror.org/04dp81f27","country_code":"PT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210145968"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Tiago Concei\u00e7\u00e3o","raw_affiliation_strings":["FIT/ISEL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro 1, 1959-007, Lisbon, Portugal"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"FIT/ISEL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro 1, 1959-007, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210145968"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090569371","display_name":"Nuno Cruz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8570-8670"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210145968","display_name":"The Navigator (Portugal)","ror":"https://ror.org/04dp81f27","country_code":"PT","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210145968"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141596103","display_name":"University of Lisbon","ror":"https://ror.org/01c27hj86","country_code":"PT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}],"countries":["PT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nuno Cruz","raw_affiliation_strings":["FIT/ISEL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro 1, 1959-007, Lisbon, Portugal","LASIGE, Campo Grande, Lisbon, Portugal"],"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"FIT/ISEL, R. Conselheiro Em\u00eddio Navarro 1, 1959-007, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210145968"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"LASIGE, Campo Grande, Lisbon, Portugal","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141596103"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5119447687"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210145968"],"apc_list":{"value":2590,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":3190},"apc_paid":{"value":2590,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":3190},"fwci":1.3483,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.84070369,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":91,"max":95},"biblio":{"volume":"24","issue":"5","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9829999804496765,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9829999804496765,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10734","display_name":"Information and Cyber Security","score":0.9771999716758728,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.960099995136261,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-security","display_name":"Computer security","score":0.7351701259613037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/maturity","display_name":"Maturity (psychological)","score":0.6483944058418274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/computer-science","display_name":"Computer science","score":0.6472437977790833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/domain","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","score":0.5633216500282288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cryptography","display_name":"Cryptography","score":0.5330250263214111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/internet-privacy","display_name":"Internet privacy","score":0.35938963294029236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/political-science","display_name":"Political science","score":0.2158830463886261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/law","display_name":"Law","score":0.10090094804763794},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics","display_name":"Mathematics","score":0.08501923084259033}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.7351701259613037},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101433766","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3543263","display_name":"Maturity (psychological)","level":2,"score":0.6483944058418274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6472437977790833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36503486","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11235244","display_name":"Domain (mathematical analysis)","level":2,"score":0.5633216500282288},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178489894","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8789","display_name":"Cryptography","level":2,"score":0.5330250263214111},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108827166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175975","display_name":"Internet privacy","level":1,"score":0.35938963294029236},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.2158830463886261},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.10090094804763794},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.08501923084259033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S164062316","display_name":"International Journal of Information Security","issn_l":"1615-5262","issn":["1615-5262","1615-5270"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Information Security","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10207-025-01112-1.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S164062316","display_name":"International Journal of Information Security","issn_l":"1615-5262","issn":["1615-5262","1615-5270"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Information Security","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320331683","display_name":"Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Lisboa","ror":"https://ror.org/04ea70f07"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413744144.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4413744144.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":9,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W4319594927","https://openalex.org/W4324138013","https://openalex.org/W4327521133","https://openalex.org/W4385872077","https://openalex.org/W4402157666","https://openalex.org/W4403100518","https://openalex.org/W4407163436","https://openalex.org/W4408565663","https://openalex.org/W6902270915"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2791617766","https://openalex.org/W2010501276","https://openalex.org/W2055314256","https://openalex.org/W3122869223","https://openalex.org/W4388401032","https://openalex.org/W1989068941","https://openalex.org/W2364844596","https://openalex.org/W2916821761","https://openalex.org/W2060145807","https://openalex.org/W4248806346"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"The":[1,42],"increasing":[2],"sophistication":[3],"of":[4,21],"cybersecurity":[5,28,167],"threats":[6],"demands":[7],"innovative":[8],"solutions":[9],"for":[10,124,186,192],"network":[11],"defense":[12],"and":[13,40,67,93,129,173],"security":[14,79,181],"education.":[15],"This":[16],"study":[17],"evaluates":[18],"the":[19,53,184],"potential":[20],"Large":[22],"Language":[23,55],"Models":[24],"(LLMs)":[25],"in":[26,105,118,170],"automating":[27],"tasks,":[29,168],"specifically":[30],"focusing":[31],"on":[32],"three":[33],"critical":[34],"areas:":[35],"Honeypot":[36],"generation,":[37,121],"Malware":[38,106,171],"Detection,":[39],"Capture":[41],"Flag":[43],"(CTF)":[44],"exercise":[45,120],"creation.":[46],"We":[47],"introduce":[48],"two":[49],"novel":[50],"evaluation":[51,70],"frameworks:":[52],"Cybersecurity":[54],"Understanding":[56],"(CSLU)":[57],"benchmark,":[58],"which":[59],"assesses":[60],"model":[61,144],"knowledge":[62],"through":[63],"domain-specific":[64,190],"multiple-choice":[65],"questions,":[66],"an":[68],"automated":[69],"system":[71],"that":[72,99,143,161],"measures":[73],"models\u2019":[74],"ability":[75],"to":[76],"generate":[77],"functional":[78],"artifacts.":[80],"Using":[81],"these":[82],"frameworks,":[83],"we":[84],"evaluated":[85],"seven":[86],"state-of-the-art":[87],"LLMs,":[88],"including":[89],"GPT-4,":[90,126],"Gemini":[91,127],"Pro,":[92,128],"Claude":[94,130],"3":[95,131],"Opus.":[96],"Results":[97],"demonstrate":[98],"current":[100],"LLMs":[101,162],"exhibit":[102],"strong":[103],"capabilities":[104,177],"analysis,":[107],"with":[108,147],"four":[109],"models":[110,136],"achieving":[111],"perfect":[112],"scores.":[113],"However,":[114,175],"performance":[115],"varied":[116],"significantly":[117],"CTF":[119],"indicating":[122],"areas":[123],"improvement.":[125],"Opus":[132],"consistently":[133],"outperformed":[134],"other":[135],"across":[137,179],"all":[138],"tasks.":[139],"Performance":[140],"patterns":[141],"suggest":[142],"size":[145],"correlates":[146],"task":[148],"effectiveness,":[149],"though":[150],"architecture-specific":[151],"optimizations":[152],"also":[153],"play":[154],"a":[155],"significant":[156],"role.":[157],"Our":[158],"findings":[159],"indicate":[160],"can":[163],"effectively":[164],"automate":[165],"certain":[166],"particularly":[169],"Detection":[172],"analysis.":[174],"their":[176],"vary":[178],"different":[180],"domains,":[182],"suggesting":[183],"need":[185],"specialized":[187],"training":[188],"or":[189],"adaptations":[191],"optimal":[193],"performance.":[194]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-03-10T16:38:18.471706","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}