{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4416454217","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","title":"A rapid evidence review of evaluation techniques for large language models in legal use cases: trends, gaps, and recommendations for future research","display_name":"A rapid evidence review of evaluation techniques for large language models in legal use cases: trends, gaps, and recommendations for future research","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-11-21","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4416454217","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42063861"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210190517","display_name":"AI & Society","issn_l":"0951-5666","issn":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI &amp; SOCIETY","raw_type":"journal-article"},"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011222438","display_name":"Joshua Kelsall","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6942-3015"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Joshua Kelsall","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Warwick, Coventry, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Warwick, Coventry, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085079234","display_name":"Xingwei Tan","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xingwei Tan","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Warwick, Coventry, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Warwick, Coventry, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070436471","display_name":"Aislinn Bergin","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4276-3466"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","display_name":"University of Nottingham","ror":"https://ror.org/01ee9ar58","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aislinn Bergin","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100682696","display_name":"Jiahong Chen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7152-8230"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I91136226","display_name":"University of Sheffield","ror":"https://ror.org/05krs5044","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jiahong Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91136226"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Maria Waheed","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","display_name":"University of Nottingham","ror":"https://ror.org/01ee9ar58","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maria Waheed","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032865082","display_name":"Tom Sorell","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7175-1413"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Tom Sorell","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Warwick, Coventry, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Warwick, Coventry, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056201855","display_name":"Rob Procter","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8059-5224"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rob Procter","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Warwick, Coventry, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Warwick, Coventry, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5007426895","display_name":"Maria Liakata","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-0416"},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I166337079","display_name":"Queen Mary University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/026zzn846","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I166337079"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Maria Liakata","raw_affiliation_strings":["Queen Mary University of London, London, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Queen Mary University of London, London, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I166337079"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5050362710","display_name":"Jenny Chim","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I166337079","display_name":"Queen Mary University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/026zzn846","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I166337079"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jenny Chim","raw_affiliation_strings":["Queen Mary University of London, London, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Queen Mary University of London, London, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I166337079"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5120417262","display_name":"Serene Chi","orcid":null},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I39555362","display_name":"University of Warwick","ror":"https://ror.org/01a77tt86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Serene Chi","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Warwick, Coventry, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Warwick, Coventry, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5011222438"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I39555362"],"apc_list":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"apc_paid":{"value":2290,"currency":"EUR","value_usd":2890},"fwci":10.8822,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98069615,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"41","issue":"4","first_page":"4025","last_page":"4043"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13643","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Law","score":0.34049999713897705,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13643","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Law","score":0.34049999713897705,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11636","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education","score":0.22460000216960907,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2718","display_name":"Health Informatics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/27","display_name":"Medicine"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.07240000367164612,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/relevance","display_name":"Relevance (law)","score":0.5388000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/software-deployment","display_name":"Software deployment","score":0.5331000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-profession","display_name":"Legal profession","score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/focus","display_name":"Focus (optics)","score":0.35350000858306885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-research","display_name":"Legal research","score":0.34369999170303345},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-case","display_name":"Legal case","score":0.3361000120639801}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55587333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1133029","display_name":"Engineering ethics","level":1,"score":0.592199981212616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158154518","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310970","display_name":"Relevance (law)","level":2,"score":0.5388000011444092},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5331000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.43140000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.41909998655319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170692843","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q15987302","display_name":"Legal profession","level":2,"score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56739046","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192060","display_name":"Knowledge management","level":1,"score":0.3873000144958496},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C539667460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2414942","display_name":"Management science","level":1,"score":0.3643999993801117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192209626","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190909","display_name":"Focus (optics)","level":2,"score":0.35350000858306885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C522695570","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6517578","display_name":"Legal research","level":2,"score":0.34369999170303345},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.33980000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778049185","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2334719","display_name":"Legal case","level":2,"score":0.3361000120639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777151640","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3433177","display_name":"Legal risk","level":2,"score":0.3140999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3059999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32896092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189447","display_name":"Risk management","level":2,"score":0.2824999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C143515210","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2479662","display_name":"Legal psychology","level":2,"score":0.2676999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.2567000091075897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.2524999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.2515999972820282}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":6,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210190517","display_name":"AI & Society","issn_l":"0951-5666","issn":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI &amp; SOCIETY","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:42063861","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42063861","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI & society","raw_type":null},{"id":"pmh:oai:nottingham-repository.worktribe.com:56980513","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/file/56980513/1/A%20Rapid%20Evidence%20Review%20of%20Evaluation%20Techniques%20for%20Large%20Language%20Models%20in%20Legal%20Use%20Cases%3A%20Trends%2C%20Gaps%2C%20and%20Recommendations%20for%20Future%20Research","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402483","display_name":"Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","host_organization_name":"University of Nottingham","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"publishedVersion"},{"id":"pmh:oai:eprints.whiterose.ac.uk:234787","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":null,"pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400854","display_name":"White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2800616092","host_organization_name":"White Rose University Consortium","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2800616092"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:nottingham-repository.worktribe.com:56980513","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/56980513/1/A%20Rapid%20Evidence%20Review%20of%20Evaluation%20Techniques%20for%20Large%20Language%20Models%20in%20Legal%20Use%20Cases%3A%20Trends%2C%20Gaps%2C%20and%20Recommendations%20for%20Future%20Research","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402483","display_name":"Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","host_organization_name":"University of Nottingham","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:13124847","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13124847/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"AI Soc","raw_type":"Text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210190517","display_name":"AI & Society","issn_l":"0951-5666","issn":["0951-5666","1435-5655"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AI &amp; SOCIETY","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3321750416","display_name":"AI UK: Creating an International Ecosystem for Responsible AI Research and Innovation","funder_award_id":"EP/Y009800/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","funder_display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334627","display_name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/0439y7842"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416454217.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4416454217.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":92,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1584308190","https://openalex.org/W1911361640","https://openalex.org/W1982897610","https://openalex.org/W2044712220","https://openalex.org/W2079283960","https://openalex.org/W2139464545","https://openalex.org/W2799054028","https://openalex.org/W2806532810","https://openalex.org/W2953937638","https://openalex.org/W2963672599","https://openalex.org/W3016970897","https://openalex.org/W3159259047","https://openalex.org/W3162173425","https://openalex.org/W3212259563","https://openalex.org/W4205477024","https://openalex.org/W4213272379","https://openalex.org/W4288113232","https://openalex.org/W4297102741","https://openalex.org/W4308481882","https://openalex.org/W4327519588","https://openalex.org/W4375958664","https://openalex.org/W4375958700","https://openalex.org/W4378908626","https://openalex.org/W4379919048","https://openalex.org/W4384648010","https://openalex.org/W4385392864","https://openalex.org/W4385474484","https://openalex.org/W4385570658","https://openalex.org/W4386510763","https://openalex.org/W4386511080","https://openalex.org/W4386939499","https://openalex.org/W4387185203","https://openalex.org/W4387724956","https://openalex.org/W4387929164","https://openalex.org/W4387929547","https://openalex.org/W4388584574","https://openalex.org/W4389518397","https://openalex.org/W4389518882","https://openalex.org/W4389519254","https://openalex.org/W4389519598","https://openalex.org/W4389523920","https://openalex.org/W4389524228","https://openalex.org/W4389524349","https://openalex.org/W4389524510","https://openalex.org/W4389565699","https://openalex.org/W4389565725","https://openalex.org/W4389565730","https://openalex.org/W4389565842","https://openalex.org/W4391093139","https://openalex.org/W4391211959","https://openalex.org/W4391583917","https://openalex.org/W4391631473","https://openalex.org/W4391766565","https://openalex.org/W4391831350","https://openalex.org/W4392157712","https://openalex.org/W4392477373","https://openalex.org/W4392773046","https://openalex.org/W4392855205","https://openalex.org/W4392869939","https://openalex.org/W4392906025","https://openalex.org/W4393113494","https://openalex.org/W4393160697","https://openalex.org/W4394580124","https://openalex.org/W4396244031","https://openalex.org/W4396819502","https://openalex.org/W4399314273","https://openalex.org/W4399363378","https://openalex.org/W4399365040","https://openalex.org/W4399687308","https://openalex.org/W4399830186","https://openalex.org/W4401180159","https://openalex.org/W4401431421","https://openalex.org/W4401661463","https://openalex.org/W4402667001","https://openalex.org/W4402667136","https://openalex.org/W4402670536","https://openalex.org/W4402670999","https://openalex.org/W4403345734","https://openalex.org/W4403536032","https://openalex.org/W4403735899","https://openalex.org/W4403768737","https://openalex.org/W4405042887","https://openalex.org/W4405092468","https://openalex.org/W4405263580","https://openalex.org/W4407359144","https://openalex.org/W4408519678","https://openalex.org/W4408605051","https://openalex.org/W4410342726","https://openalex.org/W4412887849","https://openalex.org/W6922395257","https://openalex.org/W6929517772","https://openalex.org/W6962445416"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,201],"legal":[1,13,36,76,83,97,122,133,156],"profession":[2],"faces":[3],"mounting":[4],"pressures,":[5],"including":[6],"case":[7],"backlogs":[8],"and":[9,40,50,65,139,168,187,195],"limited":[10],"access":[11,51],"to":[12,31,52,61,96,105,153],"services.":[14],"Large":[15],"language":[16],"models":[17,45],"(LLMs),":[18],"such":[19,34],"as":[20,27,35,99],"OpenAI's":[21],"GPT":[22],"series,":[23],"have":[24,71],"been":[25],"touted":[26],"potential":[28],"solutions,":[29],"promising":[30],"streamline":[32],"tasks":[33,92,134],"drafting,":[37],"summarisation,":[38],"analysis,":[39],"advice.":[41],"Proponents":[42],"argue":[43,159],"these":[44,150,173],"can":[46,70],"enhance":[47],"efficiency,":[48],"accuracy,":[49],"justice.":[53],"However,":[54],"significant":[55],"risks":[56],"remain.":[57],"LLMs":[58,107,138],"are":[59,94,135,143],"prone":[60],"bias,":[62],"factual":[63],"hallucinations,":[64],"opaque":[66],"reasoning":[67],"processes,":[68],"which":[69,172],"severe":[72],"consequences":[73],"in":[74,81,121,127,171],"high-stakes":[75],"contexts.":[77],"For":[78],"responsible":[79,196],"use":[80,84],"law,":[82],"cases":[85],"must":[86],"be":[87,176],"accurately":[88],"operationalised":[89,136],"into":[90],"LLM":[91,119],"that":[93,160],"sensitive":[95],"settings,":[98],"do":[100],"the":[101,165,181],"evaluation":[102,141],"metrics":[103,142],"used":[104],"evaluate":[106],"performing":[108],"those":[109],"tasks.":[110],"This":[111,178],"paper":[112],"presents":[113],"a":[114,146],"rapid":[115],"literature":[116],"review":[117],"of":[118,184],"research":[120,194],"contexts":[123,170],"since":[124],"ChatGPT-4's":[125],"release":[126],"March":[128],"2023.":[129],"We":[130,158],"examine":[131],"how":[132,149],"for":[137,190],"what":[140],"used,":[144],"with":[145],"focus":[147],"on":[148],"align-or":[151],"fail":[152],"align-with":[154],"real-world":[155],"practice.":[157],"existing":[161],"studies":[162],"often":[163],"overlook":[164],"institutional,":[166],"organisational,":[167],"professional":[169],"tools":[174],"would":[175],"deployed.":[177],"oversight":[179],"limits":[180],"practical":[182],"relevance":[183],"current":[185],"evaluations":[186],"proposes":[188],"directions":[189],"more":[191],"contextually":[192],"grounded":[193],"deployment":[197],"strategies.":[198],"Supplementary":[199],"Information:":[200],"online":[202],"version":[203],"contains":[204],"supplementary":[205],"material":[206],"available":[207],"at":[208],"10.1007/s00146-025-02741-9.":[209]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-07-02T09:51:11.867554","created_date":"2025-11-23T00:00:00"}
