{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225817177","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","title":"AD2EF-Net: an adaptive dropout artificial neural network with behavior-aware feature engineering for version number attack detection in RPL-based IoT networks","display_name":"AD2EF-Net: an adaptive dropout artificial neural network with behavior-aware feature engineering for version number attack detection in RPL-based IoT networks","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-11","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225817177","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5097713421","display_name":"Nadia A. Alfriehat","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2336-0839","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2336-0839"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I91633459","display_name":"Middle East University","ror":"https://ror.org/059bgad73","country_code":"JO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I91633459"]}],"countries":["JO"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Nadia Adnan Alfriehat","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Technology, Middle East University, Amman, 11831, Jordan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-2336-0839","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Cyber Security, Faculty of Information Technology, Middle East University, Amman, 11831, Jordan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91633459"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015229013","display_name":"Mohammed Anbar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7026-6408","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7026-6408","https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9234-9650"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I139322472","display_name":"Universiti Sains Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/02rgb2k63","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammed Anbar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015923093","display_name":"Mohammad Aljaidi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9486-3533","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9486-3533"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I153687341","display_name":"Zarqa University","ror":"https://ror.org/01wf1es90","country_code":"JO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I153687341"]}],"countries":["JO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Aljaidi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Zarqa University, Zarqa, 13110, Jordan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Information Technology, Zarqa University, Zarqa, 13110, Jordan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I153687341"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5161459385","display_name":"Mohammad Ahmad","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I147554453","display_name":"University of Bedfordshire","ror":"https://ror.org/0400avk24","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Ahmad","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Computing, Engineering and Creative Industries, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Computing, Engineering and Creative Industries, University of Bedfordshire, Luton, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I147554453"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008294244","display_name":"Mohammad Emad Arafah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5645-2290","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5645-2290"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I36622005","display_name":"Petra University","ror":"https://ror.org/039d9es10","country_code":"JO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I36622005"]}],"countries":["JO"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mohammad Arafah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of DS and AI, Faculty of Information Technology, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of DS and AI, Faculty of Information Technology, University of Petra, Amman, Jordan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I36622005"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046783630","display_name":"Ziyad R. Alashhab","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4748-8037","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4748-8037"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I139322472","display_name":"Universiti Sains Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/02rgb2k63","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ziyad R. Alashhab","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5122191883","display_name":"Ahmad Alshammari","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2051-2757","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0000-2051-2757"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I118590987","display_name":"Northern Border University","ror":"https://ror.org/03j9tzj20","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I118590987"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ahmad Alshammari","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Sciences, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Northern Border University, 91911, Rafha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Sciences, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, Northern Border University, 91911, Rafha, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I118590987"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054341757","display_name":"Shankar Karuppayah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4801-6370","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4801-6370"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I139322472","display_name":"Universiti Sains Malaysia","ror":"https://ror.org/02rgb2k63","country_code":"MY","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}],"countries":["MY"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shankar Karuppayah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cybersecurity Research Centre(CYRES), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM),11800 USM, Pulau Penang, Malaysia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I139322472"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":6,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5097713421"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I91633459"],"apc_list":{"value":2690,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2690},"apc_paid":{"value":2690,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2690},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.6708999872207642,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.6708999872207642,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11498","display_name":"Security in Wireless Sensor Networks","score":0.2849000096321106,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.019700000062584877,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7512000203132629},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776145597","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25339462","display_name":"Dropout (neural networks)","level":2,"score":0.7008000016212463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148483581","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q446488","display_name":"Feature selection","level":2,"score":0.5295000076293945},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.5235999822616577},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104954878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1648707","display_name":"Routing protocol","level":3,"score":0.5170000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43521106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2165493","display_name":"Pipeline (software)","level":2,"score":0.5083000063896179},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.44909998774528503},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74172769","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1446839","display_name":"Routing (electronic design automation)","level":2,"score":0.4426000118255615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.43149998784065247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81860439","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q251212","display_name":"Internet of Things","level":2,"score":0.430400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4246000051498413},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.4237000048160553},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780385302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q367158","display_name":"Protocol (science)","level":3,"score":0.4052000045776367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.4002000093460083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165021410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55564","display_name":"Lossy compression","level":2,"score":0.3747999966144562},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778827112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q22245680","display_name":"Feature engineering","level":3,"score":0.34139999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42812","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1082910","display_name":"Partition (number theory)","level":2,"score":0.3244999945163727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3158000111579895},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.29600000381469727},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C128942645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1568346","display_name":"Test case","level":3,"score":0.28679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.2847000062465668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.2809000015258789},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110875604","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q75","display_name":"The Internet","level":2,"score":0.2800000011920929},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148524875","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6975395","display_name":"F1 score","level":2,"score":0.2786000072956085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.27630001306533813},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81669768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2359161","display_name":"Precision and recall","level":2,"score":0.2711000144481659},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139807058","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q352374","display_name":"Adaptation (eye)","level":2,"score":0.25839999318122864}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77742-9","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Internet":[0],"of":[1,235],"Things":[2],"(IoT)":[3],"networks":[4],"commonly":[5],"employ":[6],"the":[7,59,64,82,99,120,151,178,183,197,209,228],"Routing":[8],"Protocol":[9],"for":[10],"Low-Power":[11],"and":[12,26,50,75,85,91,115,136,150],"Lossy":[13],"Networks":[14],"(RPL),":[15],"where":[16],"Version":[17],"Number":[18],"(VN)":[19],"attacks":[20],"can":[21],"trigger":[22],"unnecessary":[23],"global":[24],"repairs":[25],"persistent":[27],"routing":[28],"instability.":[29],"This":[30],"paper":[31],"presents":[32],"AD2EF-Net,":[33],"an":[34],"ANN-based":[35],"VN-attack":[36],"detection":[37],"framework":[38,223],"that":[39,177],"integrates":[40],"SHAP-guided":[41],"offline":[42],"analysis,":[43],"behavior-aware":[44],"feature":[45,48,76],"engineering,":[46],"intersection-consensus":[47,179,198],"selection,":[49],"a":[51,111,116,220],"self-tuning":[52],"adaptive-dropout":[53],"mechanism.":[54],"To":[55],"avoid":[56],"information":[57],"leakage,":[58],"revised":[60,214],"experimental":[61],"protocol":[62],"performs":[63],"stratified":[65],"60/20/20":[66],"train/validation/test":[67],"split":[68],"before":[69],"training-dependent":[70],"preprocessing;":[71],"SMOTE,":[72],"Min\u2013Max":[73],"scaling,":[74],"selection":[77],"are":[78,200],"fitted":[79],"exclusively":[80],"on":[81,119,186,227],"training":[83],"partition":[84],"then":[86],"applied":[87],"unchanged":[88],"to":[89],"validation":[90],"held-out":[92,121],"test":[93,122],"data.":[94],"Under":[95],"this":[96,187],"corrected":[97],"protocol,":[98],"final":[100],"evaluated":[101,229],"AD2EF-Net":[102,218],"pipeline":[103],"achieved":[104,141,192],"90.49%":[105],"accuracy,":[106,145,165],"84.54%":[107],"precision,":[108],"98.19%":[109],"recall,":[110],"90.86%":[112],"F1":[113],"score,":[114],"95.99%":[117],"AUC":[118,154],"set.":[123],"A":[124,172],"controlled":[125],"ten-seed":[126],"dropout":[127,140],"ablation":[128,175],"showed":[129,176],"only":[130],"small":[131],"differences":[132],"among":[133],"no-dropout,":[134],"fixed-rate,":[135],"adaptive":[137,139],"configurations:":[138],"92.45":[142],"\u00b1":[143,147,156],"0.21%":[144],"92.49":[146],"0.20%":[148],"F1,":[149,166],"highest":[152],"mean":[153,164],"(97.36":[155],"0.13%),":[157],"while":[158,232],"fixed":[159],"rates":[160],"produced":[161],"slightly":[162],"higher":[163],"or":[167,239],"recall":[168,226],"in":[169],"some":[170],"cases.":[171],"separate":[173],"feature-selection":[174,211],"strategy":[180],"is":[181],"not":[182],"highest-performing":[184,210],"selector":[185],"dataset;":[188],"Extra":[189],"Trees":[190],"top-16":[191],"stronger":[193],"predictive":[194],"performance,":[195],"whereas":[196],"configurations":[199],"discussed":[201],"as":[202,208,219],"consensus-based":[203],"design":[204],"trade-offs":[205],"rather":[206],"than":[207],"strategy.":[212],"The":[213],"results":[215],"therefore":[216],"support":[217],"transparent,":[221],"leak-free":[222],"with":[224],"high":[225],"IRAD":[230],"benchmark,":[231],"avoiding":[233],"claims":[234],"universal":[236],"superiority,":[237],"generalizability,":[238],"deployment":[240],"readiness.":[241]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-12T12:28:57.059296","created_date":"2026-11-12T00:00:00"}