{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225642183","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","title":"Do Smart Grid Intrusion Detectors Learn Attacks or Operating Conditions? Evidence from a PMU-Relay Testbed and an IEEE 14-Bus Simulation","display_name":"Do Smart Grid Intrusion Detectors Learn Attacks or Operating Conditions? Evidence from a PMU-Relay Testbed and an IEEE 14-Bus Simulation","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-09","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225642183","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.5281/zenodo.24054175","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400562","display_name":"Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I67311998","host_organization_name":"European Organization for Nuclear Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I67311998"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"volume":null,"type":"preprint","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5161289204","display_name":"Haider Md. Faiyaz Hussain Shahi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0940-9096","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0940-9096"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Shahi, Haider Md. Faiyaz Hussain","raw_affiliation_strings":["Independent Researcher"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0940-9096","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Independent Researcher","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5161289204"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10917","display_name":"Smart Grid Security and Resilience","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10305","display_name":"Power System Optimization and Stability","score":0.0003000000142492354,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13429","display_name":"Electricity Theft Detection Techniques","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intrusion-detection","display_name":"intrusion detection","score":0.7200000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/false-data-injection-attacks","display_name":"false data injection attacks","score":0.7440000176429749},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/phasor-measurement-units","display_name":"phasor measurement units","score":0.8640000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"random forest","score":0.5929999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bad-data-detection","display_name":"bad data detection","score":0.8069999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stealthy-attacks","display_name":"stealthy attacks","score":0.6729999780654907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ieee-14-bus-system","display_name":"IEEE 14-bus system","score":0.8849999904632568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/false-alarm-rate","display_name":"false alarm rate","score":0.4970000088214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/threshold-calibration","display_name":"threshold calibration","score":0.4429999887943268}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31395832","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1318674","display_name":"Testbed","level":2,"score":0.8385000228881836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6209999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94915269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1834857","display_name":"Detector","level":2,"score":0.6164000034332275},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.5976999998092651},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.5916000008583069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155512373","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287450","display_name":"Residual","level":2,"score":0.5794000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776836416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1364844","display_name":"False alarm","level":2,"score":0.531499981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.4537000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77052588","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644307","display_name":"Constant false alarm rate","level":2,"score":0.44839999079704285},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776436953","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5163215","display_name":"Consistency (knowledge bases)","level":2,"score":0.42829999327659607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10558101","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q689855","display_name":"Smart grid","level":2,"score":0.40939998626708984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C176605952","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q827674","display_name":"Phasor","level":4,"score":0.3637999892234802},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779119184","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294350","display_name":"ALARM","level":2,"score":0.35010001063346863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201307755","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4071928","display_name":"Cyber-attack","level":2,"score":0.3463999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.3384999930858612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31258907","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1301371","display_name":"Computer network","level":1,"score":0.3255000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187691185","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2020720","display_name":"Grid","level":2,"score":0.3165000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201866948","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228206","display_name":"Random number generation","level":2,"score":0.2847000062465668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158251709","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q354025","display_name":"Intrusion","level":2,"score":0.2750999927520752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.27320000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.27160000801086426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.2662000060081482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89227174","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2388981","display_name":"Electric power system","level":3,"score":0.2646999955177307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779843651","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7390335","display_name":"SIGNAL (programming language)","level":2,"score":0.26109999418258667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.2583000063896179},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178005623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q308859","display_name":"Anonymity","level":2,"score":0.2542000114917755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151233233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47574","display_name":"Units of measurement","level":2,"score":0.2531000077724457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C200601418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2193887","display_name":"Reliability engineering","level":1,"score":0.25279998779296875}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.5281/zenodo.24054175","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400562","display_name":"Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I67311998","host_organization_name":"European Organization for Nuclear Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I67311998"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},{"id":"doi:10.5281/zenodo.24054176","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054176","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054176","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400562","display_name":"Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I67311998","host_organization_name":"European Organization for Nuclear Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I67311998"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.5281/zenodo.24054175","doi":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.24054175","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400562","display_name":"Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I67311998","host_organization_name":"European Organization for Nuclear Research","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I67311998"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5378999710083008,"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2000713213","https://openalex.org/W2919785014","https://openalex.org/W3038203361","https://openalex.org/W2984469774","https://openalex.org/W7148849597","https://openalex.org/W4206414701","https://openalex.org/W6964692012","https://openalex.org/W4380994246","https://openalex.org/W7159847072","https://openalex.org/W3194868721"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Machine":[0],"learning":[1],"detectors":[2,22],"of":[3,16,41,70,82,119,171,179,190,213],"cyber":[4],"attacks":[5,24,63,173,180],"on":[6,33,163,174,181,199],"power":[7],"systems":[8],"are":[9,85],"often":[10],"evaluated":[11],"with":[12,46,67,88,101,203],"a":[13,29,34,38,59,68,73,120,211],"random":[14,60,74,161],"split":[15,75],"samples.":[17,106],"We":[18,215],"study":[19],"whether":[20],"such":[21],"learn":[23],"or":[25],"operating":[26,83],"conditions,":[27],"using":[28],"public":[30],"dataset":[31],"recorded":[32],"PMU-relay":[35],"testbed":[36,57],"and":[37,50,113,166,177,219],"42-day":[39],"simulation":[40,218],"the":[42,56,92,95,116,123,126,136,142,149,153,167,204,217],"IEEE":[43],"14-bus":[44],"system":[45],"phasor":[47],"measurement":[48],"units":[49],"false":[51],"data":[52,156],"injection":[53],"(FDI).":[54],"On":[55],"data,":[58],"forest":[61,162],"separates":[62],"from":[64,104,128],"natural":[65],"events":[66],"macro-F1":[69],"0.90":[71],"under":[72],"but":[76,132],"only":[77],"0.61":[78],"when":[79],"whole":[80],"sets":[81,96],"conditions":[84],"held":[86],"out,":[87],"an":[89],"accuracy":[90,103],"below":[91],"majority-class":[93],"baseline;":[94],"themselves":[97],"can":[98],"be":[99],"identified":[100],"95.5%":[102],"normal-operation":[105],"Load-independent":[107],"physics":[108],"features,":[109],"including":[110],"sequence-component":[111],"ratios":[112],"consistency":[114],"between":[115,125],"two":[117],"ends":[118],"line,":[121],"reduce":[122],"gap":[124],"protocols":[127],"0.29":[129],"to":[130,147],"0.04":[131],"do":[133],"not":[134,183],"raise":[135],"grouped":[137],"score":[138],"above":[139],"0.63.":[140],"In":[141],"simulation,":[143],"stealthy":[144,172],"FDI":[145],"constructed":[146],"preserve":[148],"state-estimation":[150],"residual":[151,168],"bypasses":[152],"chi-square":[154],"bad":[155],"detector":[157],"(1.1%":[158],"detection).":[159],"A":[160],"PMU":[164],"measurements":[165],"detects":[169,208],"99.9%":[170],"future":[175],"days":[176],"86%":[178],"buses":[182],"seen":[184],"during":[185],"training,":[186],"at":[187],"false-alarm":[188],"rates":[189],"1.4-1.8%,":[191],"provided":[192],"that":[193],"its":[194],"alarm":[195],"threshold":[196,206],"is":[197],"calibrated":[198],"held-out":[200],"normal":[201],"data;":[202],"default":[205],"it":[207],"62%":[209],"despite":[210],"ROC-AUC":[212],"0.996.":[214],"release":[216],"evaluation":[220],"code.":[221]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-11T12:16:26.678958","created_date":"2026-11-10T00:00:00"}