{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225575285","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","title":"Formulation and Characterisation of Azathioprine-Loaded Nanosponges for Topical Gel Delivery","display_name":"Formulation and Characterisation of Azathioprine-Loaded Nanosponges for Topical Gel Delivery","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225575285","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","pdf_url":"https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijap/article/download/60304/34584","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764477652","display_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","issn_l":"0975-7058","issn":["0975-7058"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":["poland-100","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4322697801","host_organization_name":"Innovare Academic Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4322697801"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Innovare Academic Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijap/article/download/60304/34584","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5161300440","display_name":"GUNDLAPALLY HARI KIRITI VARMA","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885392262","display_name":"GITAM University","ror":"https://ror.org/0440p1d37","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885392262"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"GUNDLAPALLY HARI KIRITI VARMA","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Pharmaceutics, GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Rudraram, Sangareddy, Hyderabad-502329, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Pharmaceutics, GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Rudraram, Sangareddy, Hyderabad-502329, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885392262"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5161300491","display_name":"PAVAN KUMAR CHINTAMANENI","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I885392262","display_name":"GITAM University","ror":"https://ror.org/0440p1d37","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I885392262"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"PAVAN KUMAR CHINTAMANENI","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Pharmaceutics, GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Rudraram, Sangareddy, Hyderabad-502329, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Pharmaceutics, GITAM School of Pharmacy, GITAM (Deemed to be) University, Rudraram, Sangareddy, Hyderabad-502329, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885392262"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I885392262"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"430","last_page":"445"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10704","display_name":"Advancements in Transdermal Drug Delivery","score":0.9872999787330627,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3003","display_name":"Pharmaceutical Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/30","display_name":"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10704","display_name":"Advancements in Transdermal Drug Delivery","score":0.9872999787330627,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3003","display_name":"Pharmaceutical Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/30","display_name":"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10920","display_name":"Advanced Drug Delivery Systems","score":0.008999999612569809,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3003","display_name":"Pharmaceutical Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/30","display_name":"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10256","display_name":"Drug Solubulity and Delivery Systems","score":0.002099999925121665,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3003","display_name":"Pharmaceutical Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/30","display_name":"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/azathioprine","display_name":"azathioprine","score":0.9980000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/nanosponges","display_name":"nanosponges","score":0.9779999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/topical-gel","display_name":"topical gel","score":0.6299999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/nanogels","display_name":"nanogels","score":0.6970000267028809},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/beta-cyclodextrin","display_name":"\u03b2-cyclodextrin","score":0.8579999804496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/1-2-3-4-butanetetracarboxylic-acid","display_name":"1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid","score":0.7020000219345093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tpgs","display_name":"TPGS","score":0.9879999756813049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/emulsion-solvent-evaporation","display_name":"emulsion solvent evaporation","score":0.8629999756813049},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sustained-release","display_name":"sustained drug release","score":0.8059999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/higuchi-kinetics","display_name":"Higuchi model","score":0.8769999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/carbomer","display_name":"Carbopol","score":0.796999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rheological-properties","display_name":"rheological properties","score":0.5979999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spreadability","display_name":"spreadability","score":0.6010000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/drug-stability","display_name":"drug stability","score":0.3790000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/box-behnken-design","display_name":"Box-Behnken design","score":0.6990000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/encapsulation-efficiency","display_name":"encapsulation efficiency","score":0.7260000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/excipient-compatibility","display_name":"excipient compatibility","score":0.5630000233650208}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134424308","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4119000","display_name":"Nanogel","level":3,"score":0.8521999716758728},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39519442","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q904893","display_name":"Differential scanning calorimetry","level":2,"score":0.7300999760627747},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.6373999714851379},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11432220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1975334","display_name":"Dispersity","level":2,"score":0.5740000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187530423","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7140503","display_name":"Particle size","level":2,"score":0.5694000124931335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86181022","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q196823","display_name":"Zeta potential","level":3,"score":0.5169000029563904},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776964284","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q410083","display_name":"Polyethylene glycol","level":2,"score":0.47620001435279846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43617362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q170050","display_name":"Chromatography","level":1,"score":0.43779999017715454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779820397","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1392806","display_name":"Drug delivery","level":2,"score":0.4284000098705292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14631669","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q896108","display_name":"Dynamic light scattering","level":3,"score":0.421099990606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777239854","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q902638","display_name":"Excipient","level":2,"score":0.3921999931335449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C101335993","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q408943","display_name":"Poloxamer","level":4,"score":0.38920000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42360764","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83588","display_name":"Chemical engineering","level":1,"score":0.3709000051021576},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780306666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7225971","display_name":"Poloxamer 407","level":5,"score":0.33340001106262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26771246","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q321095","display_name":"Scanning electron microscope","level":2,"score":0.3255000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163588942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165929","display_name":"Controlled release","level":2,"score":0.32350000739097595},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138651985","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186249","display_name":"Pharmaceutics","level":2,"score":0.3165000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13965031","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q243545","display_name":"Nuclear chemistry","level":1,"score":0.28780001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778823387","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q179254","display_name":"Gelatin","level":2,"score":0.2865999937057495},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.28209999203681946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77281830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q718608","display_name":"Dosage form","level":2,"score":0.27250000834465027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C148898269","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1108792","display_name":"Kinetics","level":2,"score":0.2709999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C200990466","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q271707","display_name":"Rheology","level":2,"score":0.2700999975204468},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93356670","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q868743","display_name":"Viscometer","level":3,"score":0.26260000467300415}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","pdf_url":"https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijap/article/download/60304/34584","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764477652","display_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","issn_l":"0975-7058","issn":["0975-7058"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":["poland-100","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4322697801","host_organization_name":"Innovare Academic Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4322697801"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Innovare Academic Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22159/ijap.2026v18i6.60304","pdf_url":"https://journals.innovareacademics.in/index.php/ijap/article/download/60304/34584","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764477652","display_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","issn_l":"0975-7058","issn":["0975-7058"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":["poland-100","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4322697801","host_organization_name":"Innovare Academic Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4322697801"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Innovare Academic Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Applied Pharmaceutics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Good health and well-being","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/3","score":0.8560000061988831}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320317448","display_name":"Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management","ror":"https://ror.org/0440p1d37"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225575285.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225575285.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":35,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1974149149","https://openalex.org/W2065059617","https://openalex.org/W2095315383","https://openalex.org/W2117774828","https://openalex.org/W2170973317","https://openalex.org/W2337067437","https://openalex.org/W2345688875","https://openalex.org/W2990837621","https://openalex.org/W3000591474","https://openalex.org/W3112405275","https://openalex.org/W3158869560","https://openalex.org/W4220815619","https://openalex.org/W4225833012","https://openalex.org/W4312747515","https://openalex.org/W4367043077","https://openalex.org/W4376114541","https://openalex.org/W4380683604","https://openalex.org/W4381687975","https://openalex.org/W4385559155","https://openalex.org/W4388138407","https://openalex.org/W4389705118","https://openalex.org/W4390703607","https://openalex.org/W4392859554","https://openalex.org/W4401127026","https://openalex.org/W4403116595","https://openalex.org/W4403224333","https://openalex.org/W4404221974","https://openalex.org/W4406843348","https://openalex.org/W4407559140","https://openalex.org/W4408813213","https://openalex.org/W4410448814","https://openalex.org/W4413416718","https://openalex.org/W7135083866","https://openalex.org/W7141540840","https://openalex.org/W7162627680"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2767225452","https://openalex.org/W7213400775","https://openalex.org/W4293253098","https://openalex.org/W4411255771","https://openalex.org/W4312776080","https://openalex.org/W7125614818","https://openalex.org/W7126186145","https://openalex.org/W7223211418","https://openalex.org/W4404221974","https://openalex.org/W4406937925"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Objective:":[0],"The":[1,103,215,234,270],"present":[2],"study":[3,244],"aimed":[4],"to":[5,20,265],"formulate,":[6],"optimise,":[7],"and":[8,12,27,40,58,71,82,95,112,123,152,158,164,209,230,281,284],"characterise":[9],"azathioprine-loaded":[10,272],"nanosponges":[11,63,105,174],"incorporate":[13],"them":[14],"into":[15,108],"a":[16,74,109,138,218,240],"topical":[17,29,289],"nanogel":[18,111,216],"system":[19],"achieve":[21],"sustained":[22,276],"in":[23,119],"vitro":[24,120],"drug":[25,121,185,226,277,290],"release":[26,186],"improved":[28],"delivery.":[30,291],"Methods:":[31],"Compatibility":[32],"of":[33,79,141,145,149,154,181,220,223,228,232,253],"azathioprine":[34,166],"with":[35,175],"\u03b2-cyclodextrin,":[36,80],"1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic":[37],"acid":[38],"(BTCA),":[39],"D-\u03b1-tocopheryl":[41],"polyethylene":[42],"glycol":[43],"1000":[44],"succinate":[45],"(TPGS)":[46],"was":[47,131,187],"evaluated":[48,113],"using":[49,73],"Fourier-transform":[50],"infrared":[51],"spectroscopy":[52],"(FTIR),":[53],"differential":[54],"scanning":[55],"calorimetry":[56],"(DSC),":[57],"X-ray":[59],"diffraction":[60],"(XRD).":[61],"Azathioprine-loaded":[62],"were":[64,84,99,106],"prepared":[65],"by":[66],"the":[67,134,200,205],"emulsion-solvent":[68],"evaporation":[69],"method":[70],"optimised":[72,104,135,271],"Box\u2013Behnken":[75],"design":[76],"(BBD).":[77],"Concentrations":[78],"BTCA,":[81],"TPGS":[83],"selected":[85,132],"as":[86,133],"independent":[87],"variables,":[88],"whereas":[89],"particle":[90,139,179],"size,":[91],"polydispersity":[92],"index":[93],"(PDI),":[94],"entrapment":[96],"efficiency":[97],"(%EE)":[98],"considered":[100],"dependent":[101],"responses.":[102],"incorporated":[107],"Carbopol-based":[110],"for":[114,189,249,287],"physicochemical":[115,280],"characteristics,":[116],"rheological":[117,282],"behaviour,":[118],"release,":[122,278],"accelerated":[124,243],"stability.":[125],"Results:":[126],"Among":[127],"15":[128],"formulations,":[129],"F10":[130],"formulation,":[136],"exhibiting":[137],"size":[140,180],"276.3":[142],"nm,":[143],"PDI":[144],"0.136,":[146],"zeta":[147],"potential":[148,286],"\u221225.6":[150],"mV,":[151],"%EE":[153],"84.14%.":[155],"FTIR,":[156],"DSC,":[157],"XRD":[159],"analyses":[160],"indicated":[161],"excipient":[162],"compatibility":[163],"reduced":[165],"crystallinity.":[167],"Scanning":[168],"electron":[169],"microscopy":[170],"(SEM)":[171],"revealed":[172],"spherical":[173],"an":[176],"average":[177],"dry":[178],"231.4\u00b128.7":[182],"nm.":[183],"Sustained":[184],"observed":[188],"12":[190],"h,":[191],"reaching":[192],"96.31\u00b11.18%":[193],"(n":[194],"=":[195],"3).":[196],"Release":[197],"kinetics":[198],"followed":[199],"Higuchi":[201],"model":[202],"based":[203],"on":[204],"highest":[206],"adjusted":[207],"R\u00b2":[208],"lowest":[210],"Akaike":[211],"information":[212],"criterion":[213],"(AIC).":[214],"exhibited":[217,275],"pH":[219],"5.52\u00b10.01,":[221],"viscosity":[222],"1035\u00b12.27":[224],"cP,":[225],"content":[227],"91.41\u00b10.19%,":[229],"spreadability":[231],"93.49\u00b11.09%.":[233],"formulation":[235],"remained":[236],"physicochemically":[237],"stable":[238],"during":[239],"three-month":[241],"preliminary":[242],"conducted":[245],"under":[246],"International":[247],"Council":[248],"Harmonisation":[250],"(ICH)":[251],"conditions":[252],"40\u00b12":[254],"\u00b0C/75\u00b15%":[255],"relative":[256],"humidity":[257],"(RH).":[258],"Longer-term":[259],"ICH":[260],"stability":[261],"studies":[262],"are":[263],"required":[264],"establish":[266],"shelf":[267],"life.":[268],"Conclusion:":[269],"nanosponge":[273],"gel":[274],"favourable":[279],"properties,":[283],"promising":[285],"prolonged":[288]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-10T11:39:43.021295","created_date":"2026-11-09T00:00:00"}