{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225449232","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656","title":"Interpreting Null Effects in Education: Insights from a Tutoring Experiment","display_name":"Interpreting Null Effects in Education: Insights from a Tutoring Experiment","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225449232","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3102/00028312261492656","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S185455288","display_name":"American Educational Research Journal","issn_l":"0002-8312","issn":["0002-8312","1935-1011"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-1","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320017","host_organization_name":"SAGE Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320017"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["SAGE Publishing"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Educational Research Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5053604876","display_name":"Elizabeth Huffaker","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8050-4844","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8050-4844"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I33213144","display_name":"University of Florida","ror":"https://ror.org/02y3ad647","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Elizabeth Huffaker","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8050-4844","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5088589804","display_name":"Carly D. Robinson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-1589","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-1589","https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-1478"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I97018004","display_name":"Stanford University","ror":"https://ror.org/00f54p054","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Carly D. Robinson","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0663-1589","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002041967","display_name":"Emanuele Bardelli","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3383-9315","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3383-9315"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emanuele Bardelli","raw_affiliation_strings":["Santa Rosa City Schools, Santa Rosa, CA, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Santa Rosa City Schools, Santa Rosa, CA, USA","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065553301","display_name":"Susannah L.K White","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6224-6802","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6224-6802"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200719446","display_name":"Vanderbilt University","ror":"https://ror.org/02vm5rt34","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200719446"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sara May White","raw_affiliation_strings":["Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6224-6802","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200719446"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073914508","display_name":"Susanna Loeb","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1854-8843","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1854-8843"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I97018004","display_name":"Stanford University","ror":"https://ror.org/00f54p054","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Susanna Loeb","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1854-8843","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I97018004"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5053604876"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I33213144"],"apc_list":{"value":2500,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2500},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10674","display_name":"School Choice and Performance","score":0.26510000228881836,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10674","display_name":"School Choice and Performance","score":0.26510000228881836,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13566","display_name":"Global Educational Reforms and Inequalities","score":0.2142000049352646,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.1477999985218048,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/null-effect","display_name":"null effect","score":0.6639999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tutoring-programs","display_name":"tutoring programs","score":0.5609999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/online-tutoring","display_name":"online tutoring","score":0.7260000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dose-effect","display_name":"dosage effect","score":0.5669999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reading-scores","display_name":"reading scores","score":0.4169999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mathematics-achievement","display_name":"mathematics achievement","score":0.734000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/policy-evaluation","display_name":"policy evaluation","score":0.32100000977516174}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C93225998","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1941972","display_name":"Moderation","level":2,"score":0.722599983215332},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26713055","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245962","display_name":"Implementation","level":2,"score":0.67330002784729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6031000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554936623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199657","display_name":"Reading (process)","level":2,"score":0.4934999942779541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27415008","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7256382","display_name":"Psychological intervention","level":2,"score":0.41280001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C203763787","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q371029","display_name":"Null (SQL)","level":2,"score":0.4043000042438507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.3928999900817871},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191988596","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628374","display_name":"Null hypothesis","level":2,"score":0.3700999915599823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.3474000096321106},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777938197","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7834022","display_name":"Transfer of training","level":2,"score":0.32249999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778780117","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3269423","display_name":"Reading comprehension","level":3,"score":0.3199999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.31940001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C99844830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q102441924","display_name":"Scaling","level":2,"score":0.2985000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.2800999879837036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.2750000059604645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C129410224","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7291958","display_name":"Random assignment","level":2,"score":0.26649999618530273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.2639999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C88610354","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1813494","display_name":"Teaching method","level":2,"score":0.2596000134944916}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3102/00028312261492656","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312261492656","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S185455288","display_name":"American Educational Research Journal","issn_l":"0002-8312","issn":["0002-8312","1935-1011"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-1","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320017","host_organization_name":"SAGE Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320017"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["SAGE Publishing"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Educational Research Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.9235000014305115,"display_name":"Quality education"}],"study_designs":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/study-designs/clinical-trial","display_name":"Clinical Trial"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1540958723","https://openalex.org/W1978049522","https://openalex.org/W1997809363","https://openalex.org/W2099847255","https://openalex.org/W2157387965","https://openalex.org/W2170410104","https://openalex.org/W2322006099","https://openalex.org/W2746035292","https://openalex.org/W2791920361","https://openalex.org/W2894392698","https://openalex.org/W2962975811","https://openalex.org/W2995058077","https://openalex.org/W3016285839","https://openalex.org/W3121137352","https://openalex.org/W3121492802","https://openalex.org/W3160165285","https://openalex.org/W4225727402","https://openalex.org/W4381853919","https://openalex.org/W4389057283","https://openalex.org/W4394919508","https://openalex.org/W4404045941","https://openalex.org/W4408362643","https://openalex.org/W4414626388","https://openalex.org/W4416545127","https://openalex.org/W6927434361","https://openalex.org/W7104084784","https://openalex.org/W7123531828","https://openalex.org/W7151977618","https://openalex.org/W7163717170"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2995058077","https://openalex.org/W7082644680","https://openalex.org/W7163184684","https://openalex.org/W4389057283","https://openalex.org/W6908700975","https://openalex.org/W3197340845","https://openalex.org/W2085557171","https://openalex.org/W2253171908","https://openalex.org/W7141495165","https://openalex.org/W2473612857"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,87],"learn":[1],"not":[2,30],"only":[3],"from":[4,9,56],"when":[5],"interventions":[6],"work\u2014but":[7],"also":[8,88],"why":[10],"they":[11],"do":[12],"not.":[13],"Policymakers":[14],"embraced":[15],"high-impact":[16],"tutoring":[17,61,92],"to":[18,58,78],"address":[19],"pandemic":[20],"learning":[21],"loss,":[22],"but":[23],"scaling":[24],"promising":[25],"practices":[26],"is":[27],"difficult,":[28],"and":[29,42,47,76,113],"all":[31],"implementations":[32],"prove":[33],"effective.":[34],"Using":[35,63],"random":[36],"assignment,":[37],"we":[38,72],"find":[39],"null":[40,67],"(math":[41],"a":[43,59,98],"low-stakes":[44],"reading":[45,53],"test)":[46],"negative":[48],"(\u22120.09":[49],"SD":[50],"on":[51,81],"state":[52],"scores)":[54],"impacts":[55],"assignment":[57],"virtual":[60],"program.":[62],"frameworks":[64],"for":[65,84,107],"interpreting":[66],"results":[68,112],"in":[69],"education":[70],"experiments,":[71],"identify":[73,89],"subject-specific":[74],"heterogeneity":[75],"contribute":[77],"the":[79],"literature":[80],"dosage":[82],"challenges":[83],"in-school":[85],"tutoring.":[86],"alignment":[90],"of":[91],"content":[93],"with":[94],"classroom":[95],"instruction":[96],"as":[97],"moderator":[99],"warranting":[100],"further":[101],"study.":[102],"This":[103],"paper":[104],"offers":[105],"strategies":[106],"uncovering":[108],"mechanisms":[109],"behind":[110],"unexpected":[111],"designing":[114],"theory-driven,":[115],"policy-relevant":[116],"evaluations.":[117]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-09T13:22:03.289127","created_date":"2026-11-08T00:00:00"}
