{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225433282","doi":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","title":"A Comprehensive Guide to Selecting, Calculating, and Interpreting Correlation and Association Coefficients in Medical Research","display_name":"A Comprehensive Guide to Selecting, Calculating, and Interpreting Correlation and Association Coefficients in Medical Research","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225433282","doi":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","doi":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","pdf_url":"https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/19/ELOCATOR/e187494452255/PDF/","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S170533558","display_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","issn_l":"1874-9445","issn":["1874-9445"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","poland-20","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320079","host_organization_name":"Bentham Science Publishers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Bentham Science Publishers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/19/ELOCATOR/e187494452255/PDF/","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5001284951","display_name":"Farzan Madadizadeh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5757-182X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5757-182X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I235686326","display_name":"Kerman University of Medical Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/02kxbqc24","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I235686326"]}],"countries":["IR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Farzan Madadizadeh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Medical Informatics Research Center , Institute for Futures Studies in Health , Kerman University of Medical Sciences , Kerman , Iran"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5757-182X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Medical Informatics Research Center , Institute for Futures Studies in Health , Kerman University of Medical Sciences , Kerman , Iran","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I235686326"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054445979","display_name":"Vahid Ghavami","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6358-0207","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6358-0207"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I115566878","display_name":"Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman","ror":"https://ror.org/04zn42r77","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I115566878"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165560825","display_name":"Mashhad University of Medical Sciences","ror":"https://ror.org/04sfka033","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165560825"]}],"countries":["IR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vahid Ghavami","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biostatistics , School of Health , Mashhad University of Medical Sciences , Mashhad , Iran","Faculty of Mathematics and Computer , Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman , Kerman , Iran;"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6358-0207","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biostatistics , School of Health , Mashhad University of Medical Sciences , Mashhad , Iran","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165560825"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Mathematics and Computer , Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman , Kerman , Iran;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I115566878"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089986467","display_name":"Zohreh Zamani","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4762-6142","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4762-6142"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I115566878","display_name":"Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman","ror":"https://ror.org/04zn42r77","country_code":"IR","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I115566878"]}],"countries":["IR"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zohreh Zamani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Statistics , Faculty of Mathematics and Computer , Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman , Kerman , Iran"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4762-6142","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Statistics , Faculty of Mathematics and Computer , Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman , Kerman , Iran","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I115566878"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"19","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14406","display_name":"Multidisciplinary Science and Engineering Research","score":0.9721999764442444,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1804","display_name":"Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14406","display_name":"Multidisciplinary Science and Engineering Research","score":0.9721999764442444,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1804","display_name":"Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14374","display_name":"Statistical Methods in Epidemiology","score":0.018400000408291817,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13797","display_name":"Probabilistic Statistics in Medicine","score":0.0038999998942017555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/correlation-coefficient","display_name":"correlation coefficient","score":0.9909999966621399},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/association-coefficients","display_name":"association coefficients","score":0.8970000147819519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/pearson-correlation","display_name":"Pearson correlation","score":0.8029999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spearman-s-rank-correlation","display_name":"Spearman correlation","score":0.8930000066757202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cramer-s-v","display_name":"Cramer's V","score":0.9210000038146973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cohen-s-kappa","display_name":"Cohen's kappa","score":0.9070000052452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/variable-types","display_name":"variable types","score":0.5860000252723694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/continuous-variables","display_name":"continuous variables","score":0.7250000238418579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ordinal-variables","display_name":"ordinal variables","score":0.9829999804496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/nominal-variables","display_name":"nominal variables","score":0.972000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/binary-variables","display_name":"binary variables","score":0.9940000176429749},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coefficient-selection","display_name":"coefficient selection","score":0.6499999761581421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/coefficient-interpretation","display_name":"coefficient interpretation","score":0.7699999809265137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-software-implementation","display_name":"statistical software implementation","score":0.6940000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biomarker-research","display_name":"biomarker research","score":0.6539999842643738}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117220453","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5172842","display_name":"Correlation","level":2,"score":0.6280999779701233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C527412718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q855395","display_name":"Interpretation (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.586899995803833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C182365436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50701","display_name":"Variable (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.5532000064849854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5296000242233276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780092901","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3433612","display_name":"Correlation coefficient","level":2,"score":0.5117999911308289},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142853389","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744778","display_name":"Association (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.5062000155448914},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55078378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1136628","display_name":"Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient","level":2,"score":0.4948999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781181686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4226068","display_name":"Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)","level":2,"score":0.45100000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2908647359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2625603","display_name":"Population","level":2,"score":0.450300008058548},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.43720000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C534262118","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177719","display_name":"Medical diagnosis","level":2,"score":0.43220001459121704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106977388","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2752427","display_name":"Medical research","level":2,"score":0.41370001435279846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.3889999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43126263","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q128751","display_name":"Source code","level":2,"score":0.33239999413490295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.33230000734329224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.32199999690055847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2983394010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19885330","display_name":"Continuous variable","level":2,"score":0.31299999356269836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27574286","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q320723","display_name":"Variables","level":2,"score":0.3050999939441681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C25343380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q277521","display_name":"Relation (database)","level":2,"score":0.3037000000476837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.29440000653266907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2522767166","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2374463","display_name":"Data science","level":1,"score":0.25189998745918274}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","doi":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","pdf_url":"https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/19/ELOCATOR/e187494452255/PDF/","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S170533558","display_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","issn_l":"1874-9445","issn":["1874-9445"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","poland-20","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320079","host_organization_name":"Bentham Science Publishers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Bentham Science Publishers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","doi":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.2174/01187494452255261022044538","pdf_url":"https://openpublichealthjournal.com/VOLUME/19/ELOCATOR/e187494452255/PDF/","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S170533558","display_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","issn_l":"1874-9445","issn":["1874-9445"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","poland-20","russia-white-list-3"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320079","host_organization_name":"Bentham Science Publishers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320079"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Bentham Science Publishers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Open Public Health Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Good health and well-being","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/3","score":0.504800021648407}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225433282.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225433282.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":22,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2033582154","https://openalex.org/W2056437949","https://openalex.org/W2067724039","https://openalex.org/W2090797069","https://openalex.org/W2103329323","https://openalex.org/W2112690682","https://openalex.org/W2526521711","https://openalex.org/W2793350103","https://openalex.org/W2963121203","https://openalex.org/W2978621305","https://openalex.org/W3024642039","https://openalex.org/W3096101336","https://openalex.org/W3171219090","https://openalex.org/W4206949428","https://openalex.org/W4319751173","https://openalex.org/W4384819353","https://openalex.org/W4387540520","https://openalex.org/W4403889131","https://openalex.org/W4405695003","https://openalex.org/W4417274780","https://openalex.org/W7131350966","https://openalex.org/W7203703989"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1531237901","https://openalex.org/W2945555665","https://openalex.org/W7171419706","https://openalex.org/W4387540520","https://openalex.org/W7118772229","https://openalex.org/W2402007801","https://openalex.org/W1989897607","https://openalex.org/W7053521754","https://openalex.org/W4243402099","https://openalex.org/W6981415941"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Introduction/Objective":[0],"Correlation":[1],"and":[2,22,47,53,73,84,102,109,124,164,195,229,236,257,267,294,306,333],"association":[3,52],"analysis":[4],"are":[5,335],"fundamental":[6],"to":[7,66,142,264,337],"medical":[8,57,131,248,297,345],"research":[9,268,328,342],"for":[10,34,43,89,153,212,221,254],"exploring":[11],"relationships":[12],"between":[13,303],"variables.":[14,216],"However,":[15],"the":[16,44,117,175,213,233,240,255,301,321,324,339],"large":[17],"number":[18],"of":[19,24,49,98,119,174,187,209,239,259,272,280,323,341],"available":[20],"coefficients":[21,55,64,262,282],"complexity":[23],"their":[25],"appropriate":[26,260],"use":[27],"across":[28,167,290,316],"variable":[29,67,169,265],"types":[30,97,266],"represent":[31],"significant":[32],"challenges":[33],"researchers.":[35],"This":[36,244],"review":[37,148,274],"presents":[38],"a":[39,135,150,180,205,251,284],"comprehensive,":[40],"practical":[41,127,144,151,172,252,296,314],"framework":[42,253],"selection,":[45],"calculation,":[46],"interpretation":[48,85,186,334],"19":[50,155,281],"essential":[51],"correlation":[54,63,157,208,261],"in":[56,105,126,276,326,344],"research.":[58],"Methods":[59],"We":[60],"systematically":[61],"categorized":[62],"according":[65,263],"type,":[68],"including":[69,159],"continuous,":[70],"ordinal,":[71],"nominal,":[72],"dichotomous.":[74],"A":[75,92,129],"theoretical":[76,310],"basis,":[77],"mathematical":[78],"formula,":[79],"assumptions":[80],"underlying":[81],"each":[82,90,120],"coefficient,":[83],"guidelines":[86],"were":[87,111],"presented":[88,241],"coefficient.":[91],"simulated":[93,181,200],"dataset":[94,182,201],"with":[95,183,204,250,313],"various":[96,327],"variables":[99],"was":[100,122,139,177,202],"created,":[101],"coefficient":[103,121,331],"calculations":[104],"R,":[106],"SPSS,":[107,225],"Stata,":[108,226],"SAS":[110],"elaborated":[112],"step":[113],"by":[114],"step.":[115],"Finally,":[116],"performance":[118],"assessed":[123],"interpreted":[125],"examples.":[128],"real":[130],"data":[132],"example":[133],"from":[134],"published":[136],"biomarker":[137],"study":[138],"also":[140],"included":[141],"demonstrate":[143],"application.":[145,308],"Results":[146],"The":[147,171,199,270,309],"introduces":[149],"scheme":[152,176],"applying":[154],"crucial":[156,336],"coefficients,":[158],"Pearson's":[160,192],"r,":[161],"Spearman's":[162],"\u03c1,":[163],"Cram\u00e9r's":[165],"V,":[166],"different":[168],"types.":[170],"usefulness":[173],"tested":[178],"through":[179],"an":[184],"illustrative":[185],"calculated":[188],"values,":[189],"such":[190],"as":[191],"r:":[193],"0.724":[194,211],"Cohen's":[196],"Kappa:":[197],"0.423.":[198],"generated":[203],"true":[206],"population":[207],"approximately":[210],"two":[214],"continuous":[215],"In":[217],"addition,":[218],"implementation":[219,289,315],"code":[220],"four":[222,291],"statistical":[223,304],"programs\u2014R,":[224],"SAS\u2014was":[227],"provided":[228],"successfully":[230],"pre-tested,":[231],"proving":[232],"methodological":[234],"coherence":[235],"cross-software":[237,288],"reproducibility":[238],"framework.":[242],"Conclusion":[243],"comprehensive":[245,278],"guide":[246],"provides":[247],"researchers":[249],"selection":[256,332],"application":[258],"questions.":[269],"novelty":[271],"this":[273],"lies":[275],"its":[277,287,295],"coverage":[279],"within":[283],"single":[285],"framework,":[286],"major":[292],"platforms,":[293,319],"examples":[298],"that":[299],"bridge":[300],"gap":[302],"theory":[305],"clinical":[307],"foundation,":[311],"combined":[312],"multiple":[317],"software":[318],"enhances":[320],"applicability":[322],"methods":[325],"contexts.":[329],"Proper":[330],"ensure":[338],"validity":[340],"findings":[343],"studies.":[346]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-08T12:12:28.789561","created_date":"2026-11-07T00:00:00"}