{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225413087","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","title":"A comparison of time-and space-determined wave geometry for individual non-breaking waves in unidirectional random sea states","display_name":"A comparison of time-and space-determined wave geometry for individual non-breaking waves in unidirectional random sea states","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-06","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225413087","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},"volume":null,"type":"preprint","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5124834421","display_name":"Yuxin Fang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6437-964X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6437-964X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157773358","display_name":"Sun Yat-sen University","ror":"https://ror.org/0064kty71","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157773358"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["CN","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yuxin Fang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering","Imperial College London","School of Electronic and Communication Engineering","Sun Yat-sen University"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Imperial College London","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Electronic and Communication Engineering","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Sun Yat-sen University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157773358"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083250805","display_name":"Rui Cao","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2360-9412","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2360-9412"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I59028903","display_name":"Ocean University of China","ror":"https://ror.org/04rdtx186","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I59028903"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rui Cao","raw_affiliation_strings":["College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences","Ocean University of China","State Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Ocean University of China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I59028903"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"State Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5137357432","display_name":"Enrique M. Padilla","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9617848","display_name":"Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya","ror":"https://ror.org/03mb6wj31","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I9617848"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Enrique M. Padilla","raw_affiliation_strings":["Barcelona School of Industrial Engineering-ETSEIB","Universitat Polite\u0300cnica de Catalunya (UPC"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Barcelona School of Industrial Engineering-ETSEIB","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Universitat Polite\u0300cnica de Catalunya (UPC","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I9617848"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024928738","display_name":"Adrian H. Callaghan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7531-5072","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7531-5072"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I47508984","display_name":"Imperial College London","ror":"https://ror.org/041kmwe10","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Adrian H. Callaghan","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering","Imperial College London"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Imperial College London","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I47508984"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11061","display_name":"Ocean Waves and Remote Sensing","score":0.989300012588501,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1910","display_name":"Oceanography"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11061","display_name":"Ocean Waves and Remote Sensing","score":0.989300012588501,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1910","display_name":"Oceanography"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10647","display_name":"Coastal and Marine Dynamics","score":0.009399999864399433,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1904","display_name":"Earth-Surface Processes"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10248","display_name":"Nonlinear Waves and Solitons","score":0.0005000000237487257,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3109","display_name":"Statistical and Nonlinear Physics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/non-breaking-waves","display_name":"non-breaking waves","score":0.8510000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wave-crest-height","display_name":"wave crest height","score":0.6439999938011169},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wavelength","display_name":"wavelength","score":0.6039999723434448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wave-steepness","display_name":"wave steepness","score":1.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/linear-dispersion-relation","display_name":"linear dispersion relation","score":0.9120000004768372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/irregular-waves","display_name":"irregular waves","score":0.7540000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wave-separation","display_name":"wave separation","score":0.3019999861717224}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6260449","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41364","display_name":"Wavelength","level":2,"score":0.6970000267028809},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48880136","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q864673","display_name":"Crest","level":2,"score":0.638700008392334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177562468","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182893","display_name":"Dispersion (optics)","level":2,"score":0.527400016784668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44886760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1758425","display_name":"Wave propagation","level":2,"score":0.4814000129699707},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165082838","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165848","display_name":"Wind wave","level":2,"score":0.47530001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.4334999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.4034999907016754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189201455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110360","display_name":"Rogue wave","level":3,"score":0.4023999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.37950000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70620910","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q821563","display_name":"Wave height","level":2,"score":0.37689998745918274},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43179477","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1132631","display_name":"Mechanical wave","level":4,"score":0.36910000443458557},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.3546000123023987},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781147146","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1569795","display_name":"Sea state","level":2,"score":0.33500000834465027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61797465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1188986","display_name":"Term (time)","level":2,"score":0.3230000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84174578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q889796","display_name":"Surface wave","level":2,"score":0.305400013923645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C143351421","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626707","display_name":"Longitudinal wave","level":3,"score":0.3005000054836273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C202579712","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q590051","display_name":"Dispersion relation","level":2,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28719098","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44946","display_name":"Point (geometry)","level":2,"score":0.2856000065803528},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94747663","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7574086","display_name":"Spatial variability","level":2,"score":0.2838999927043915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121130766","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192510","display_name":"Wavenumber","level":2,"score":0.26429998874664307},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13280743","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131089","display_name":"Geodesy","level":1,"score":0.26260000467300415},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85910571","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2674049","display_name":"Significant wave height","level":3,"score":0.26159998774528503},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169596890","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q661247","display_name":"Breaking wave","level":3,"score":0.2605000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.2529999911785126}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},{"id":"doi:10.22541/essoar.15011811/v1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v1","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","doi":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.22541/essoar.15011811/v2","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2054006647","https://openalex.org/W7162767363","https://openalex.org/W3005358472","https://openalex.org/W2283810752","https://openalex.org/W7213366817","https://openalex.org/W4306843879","https://openalex.org/W2969249047","https://openalex.org/W4220950678","https://openalex.org/W4311710708","https://openalex.org/W2991093803"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Because":[0],"high-resolution":[1,296],"spatial":[2,51,100,164],"wave":[3,33,135,266,271,301,319,331,383],"measurements":[4,101,243],"are":[5,64,108,153,190,244,251],"difficult":[6],"to":[7,30,46,303,316,363],"obtain":[8],"in":[9,57,192,273,298,309,322,361,386],"the":[10,26,31,37,48,72,78,111,173,199,225,270,275,379],"field,":[11],"individual-wave":[12,237],"geometry":[13,238],"is":[14,279,346],"often":[15],"estimated":[16,326],"from":[17,115,141,327],"point-based":[18,116,241,382],"time":[19,73,311,328,362],"series,":[20],"with":[21,110,214,324,370],"wavelength":[22,133,165,187,264,337],"inferred":[23],"by":[24],"applying":[25],"linear":[27,276],"dispersion":[28,277],"relation":[29,278],"measured":[32,144,253,321],"period.":[34],"We":[35,203,294,348],"evaluate":[36],"accuracy":[38],"of":[39,53,102,177,224,236,358,368,381],"this":[40,282],"approach":[41,232],"using":[42,77,258],"time-synchronised":[43],"digital":[44,79],"cameras":[45,297],"record":[47],"temporal":[49,167,242],"and":[50,69,74,93,106,134,185,188,265,312,338,389],"evolution":[52],"unidirectional,":[54],"non-breaking":[55],"waves":[56,63,89,157,179,197,213,250,308,360,369],"laboratory-generated":[58],"random":[59],"sea":[60,200],"states.":[61],"Individual":[62],"identified":[65],"through":[66],"zero-crossing":[67,208],"analysis":[68],"matched":[70,88],"between":[71],"space":[75,323],"domains":[76],"imagery.":[80],"In":[81],"total,":[82],"we":[83,171],"have":[84],"analysed":[85],"almost":[86],"55,000":[87,306],"encompassing":[90],"both":[91,310],"unforced":[92],"wind-forced":[94],"conditions.":[95],"For":[96],"each":[97],"wave,":[98],"direct":[99],"crest":[103,125,332],"height,":[104],"wavelength,":[105],"steepness":[107,136,189,267,339],"compared":[109],"corresponding":[112],"values":[113],"derived":[114],"time-domain":[117],"records.":[118,329],"The":[119],"results":[120],"show":[121,138],"that":[122,150,211,268,287,353],"time-and":[123],"space-domain":[124],"heights":[126,333],"agree":[127],"closely,":[128],"as":[129],"expected,":[130],"but":[131],"time-derived":[132,217],"estimates":[137,219,235],"larger":[139],"discrepancies":[140],"their":[142,163],"spatially":[143],"values.":[145],"A":[146],"wave-type":[147],"classification":[148],"shows":[149],"these":[151],"differences":[152],"most":[154],"pronounced":[155],"for":[156,169,195,233,291],"containing":[158],"additional":[159],"local":[160],"peaks":[161],"within":[162],"or":[166,260],"period,":[168],"which":[170],"use":[172],"term":[174],"\u201dirregular\u201d,":[175],"characteristic":[176],"shorter":[178],"superimposed":[180],"on":[181,285],"longer":[182],"waves.":[183,293],"Temporally-derived":[184],"spatially-measured":[186],"typically":[191],"good":[193],"agreement":[194],"\u201dregular-like\u201d":[196],"across":[198],"states":[201],"examined.":[202],"further":[204],"introduce":[205],"a":[206,230,255,299,351,365],"paired":[207],"wave-combination":[209],"scheme":[210,352],"identifies":[212],"more":[215,371],"reliable":[216,372],"geometric":[218,373],"while":[220],"retaining":[221],"approximately":[222],"80%":[223],"observations.":[226],"These":[227,375],"findings":[228,376],"provide":[229],"practical":[231],"improving":[234],"when":[239,344],"only":[240],"available.":[245],"Plain":[246],"Language":[247],"Summary":[248],"Ocean":[249],"usually":[252],"at":[254],"fixed":[256],"point":[257],"buoys":[259],"gauges.":[261],"To":[262],"estimate":[263],"describe":[269],"shape":[272],"space,":[274,313],"used.":[280],"However,":[281],"conversion":[283],"relies":[284],"assumptions":[286],"may":[288],"not":[289],"hold":[290],"unsteady":[292],"used":[295,385],"laboratory":[300],"channel":[302],"measure":[304],"nearly":[305],"individual":[307],"allowing":[314],"us":[315],"directly":[317],"compare":[318],"properties":[320],"those":[325],"While":[330],"match":[334],"very":[335],"well,":[336],"can":[340,377],"differ":[341],"significantly,":[342],"especially":[343],"wind":[345],"present.":[347],"therefore":[349],"developed":[350],"combines":[354],"two":[355],"standard":[356],"methods":[357],"separating":[359],"identify":[364],"large":[366],"subset":[367],"estimates.":[374],"improve":[378],"interpretation":[380],"records":[384],"ocean":[387],"science":[388],"engineering.":[390]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-11T12:16:26.678958","created_date":"2026-11-07T00:00:00"}