{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225314241","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","title":"Beyond Lexical Conformity: Comparing Automatic Indicators and Expert Judgments in TOCFL-Controlled Chinese Text Generation","display_name":"Beyond Lexical Conformity: Comparing Automatic Indicators and Expert Judgments in TOCFL-Controlled Chinese Text Generation","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-11-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225314241","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a19110967","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-40","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5111913450","display_name":"Chi-Yi Hsieh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5591-6231","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5591-6231"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135551196","display_name":"National Kaohsiung Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tsc8g87","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I148099254","display_name":"National Chung Cheng University","ror":"https://ror.org/0028v3876","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chi-Yi Hsieh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Advanced Institute of Manufacturing with High-Tech Innovations, Room 209, Innovation Building, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chia-Yi 621301, Taiwan","Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan","Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0008-5591-6231","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Advanced Institute of Manufacturing with High-Tech Innovations, Room 209, Innovation Building, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chia-Yi 621301, Taiwan","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160733154","display_name":"Caroline Hsiu-Fang Hsu","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135551196","display_name":"National Kaohsiung Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tsc8g87","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4405260565","display_name":"Taipei American School","ror":"https://ror.org/03yy33w47","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4405260565"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Caroline Hsiu-Fang Hsu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","Taipei American School, 800 Zhongshan North Road, Section 6, Taipei 11152, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Taipei American School, 800 Zhongshan North Road, Section 6, Taipei 11152, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4405260565"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062994447","display_name":"Chi\u2010Wen Hsieh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7006-8794","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7006-8794"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135551196","display_name":"National Kaohsiung Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tsc8g87","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I148099254","display_name":"National Chung Cheng University","ror":"https://ror.org/0028v3876","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chi-Wen Hsieh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Advanced Institute of Manufacturing with High-Tech Innovations, Room 209, Innovation Building, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chia-Yi 621301, Taiwan","Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan","Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7006-8794","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Advanced Institute of Manufacturing with High-Tech Innovations, Room 209, Innovation Building, 168 University Road, Minhsiung Township, Chia-Yi 621301, Taiwan","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Doctoral Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5104229637","display_name":"Yi\u2010Chi Huang","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I148099254","display_name":"National Chung Cheng University","ror":"https://ror.org/0028v3876","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yi-Chi Huang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chung Cheng University, Minhsiung 621301, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I148099254"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160777840","display_name":"I-Yu Chen","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87354575","display_name":"National Chengchi University","ror":"https://ror.org/03rqk8h36","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87354575"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"I-Yu Chen","raw_affiliation_strings":["PhD Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, National Chengchi University, Taipei 116011, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"PhD Program in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, National Chengchi University, Taipei 116011, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87354575"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160801720","display_name":"Yu-Han Wu","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I135551196","display_name":"National Kaohsiung Normal University","ror":"https://ror.org/04tsc8g87","country_code":"TW","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}],"countries":["TW"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yu-Han Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Graduate Institute of Teaching Chinese as a Second/Foreign Language, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung 80201, Taiwan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5160733154"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I135551196","https://openalex.org/I4405260565"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1930},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1930},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"19","issue":"11","first_page":"967","last_page":"967"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.43070000410079956,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10181","display_name":"Natural Language Processing Techniques","score":0.43070000410079956,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10028","display_name":"Topic Modeling","score":0.3411000072956085,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13629","display_name":"Text Readability and Simplification","score":0.1793999969959259,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3310","display_name":"Linguistics and Language"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chinese-as-a-foreign-language","display_name":"Chinese as a foreign language","score":0.8519999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/large-language-models","display_name":"large language models","score":0.6980000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/expert-opinion","display_name":"expert opinion","score":0.7940000295639038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/text-revision","display_name":"textual revision","score":0.4569999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/semantic-plausibility","display_name":"semantic plausibility","score":0.7419999837875366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/embedding-similarity","display_name":"embedding similarity","score":0.3440000116825104}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.691100001335144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5738000273704529},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5273000001907349},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C103278499","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q254465","display_name":"Similarity (geometry)","level":3,"score":0.48330000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780762811","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1784941","display_name":"Cosine similarity","level":3,"score":0.41769999265670776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90805587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10944557","display_name":"Word (group theory)","level":2,"score":0.3991999924182892},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.36719998717308044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781202465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18346297","display_name":"Lexical diversity","level":3,"score":0.36469998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C130318100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2268914","display_name":"Semantic similarity","level":2,"score":0.3601999878883362},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778220771","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1522579","display_name":"Substitution (logic)","level":2,"score":0.3540000021457672},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177212765","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q627335","display_name":"Workflow","level":2,"score":0.3433000147342682},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C155512373","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287450","display_name":"Residual","level":2,"score":0.3377000093460083},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3310000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780876879","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3054749","display_name":"Meaning (existential)","level":2,"score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114010052","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q150352","display_name":"Foreign language","level":2,"score":0.31220000982284546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142853389","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q744778","display_name":"Association (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.30720001459121704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184337299","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1437428","display_name":"Semantics (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.29899999499320984},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776207758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5303302","display_name":"Downstream (manufacturing)","level":2,"score":0.2964000105857849},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.2939999997615814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23123220","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q816826","display_name":"Information retrieval","level":1,"score":0.2822999954223633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.2712000012397766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100660578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18733","display_name":"Recall","level":2,"score":0.2687999904155731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C126706616","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2944660","display_name":"Lexical item","level":2,"score":0.2685999870300293},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.2676999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160798450","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4230870","display_name":"Concordance","level":2,"score":0.25940001010894775},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776401178","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12050496","display_name":"Feature (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.25060001015663147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C60048249","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37437","display_name":"Syntax","level":2,"score":0.2500999867916107}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/a19110967","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-40","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/a19110967","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/a19110967","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S190629608","display_name":"Algorithms","issn_l":"1999-4893","issn":["1999-4893"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-40","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Algorithms","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4402670485","https://openalex.org/W4402671633","https://openalex.org/W7140135233","https://openalex.org/W7224919922","https://openalex.org/W7138183203","https://openalex.org/W7222914249","https://openalex.org/W7155389169","https://openalex.org/W4411541939","https://openalex.org/W7131789890","https://openalex.org/W7131872467"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"language":[1],"models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"generate":[4],"fluent":[5],"Chinese,":[6],"but":[7,148,177],"controlling":[8],"lexical":[9],"difficulty":[10],"remains":[11],"challenging.":[12],"This":[13],"study":[14],"examined":[15],"a":[16,48,159],"Python-orchestrated":[17],"external-control":[18],"workflow":[19],"using":[20,101],"one":[21],"GPT":[22],"model,":[23],"two":[24,68],"sequential":[25],"prompting":[26,109,122],"conditions":[27],"(no-word-list":[28],"and":[29,39,42,60,94,117,128,185],"lexicon-aware),":[30],"three":[31],"post-generation":[32],"revision":[33,62],"strategies":[34],"(word-level":[35],"substitution,":[36],"sentence-level":[37,129],"rewriting,":[38],"downstream":[40,138],"regeneration),":[41],"four":[43],"Test":[44],"of":[45],"Chinese":[46],"as":[47],"Foreign":[49],"Language":[50],"(TOCFL)":[51],"levels":[52],"(A1\u2013B2).":[53],"Automatic":[54,183],"indicators":[55,184],"covered":[56],"96":[57],"initial":[58,114],"drafts":[59],"288":[61],"outputs.":[63],"For":[64],"24":[65],"selected":[66],"tasks,":[67],"experts":[69],"directly":[70],"rated":[71],"180":[72],"text":[73],"instances;":[74],"12":[75],"unchanged":[76],"outputs":[77],"inherited":[78],"initial-draft":[79],"ratings,":[80],"yielding":[81],"192":[82],"condition-specific":[83],"expert-evaluation":[84],"records.":[85],"Task-matched":[86],"comparisons":[87],"used":[88],"20,000":[89],"TOCFL-stratified":[90],"task-cluster":[91,105],"bootstrap":[92],"resamples":[93],"Holm-adjusted":[95],"tests;":[96],"automatic\u2013expert":[97],"associations":[98],"were":[99,124],"analyzed":[100],"Spearman":[102],"correlations":[103],"with":[104,112,164,173],"confidence":[106],"intervals.":[107],"Lexicon-aware":[108],"was":[110,170],"associated":[111,172,179],"fewer":[113],"out-of-level":[115,155],"words":[116],"less":[118],"revision,":[119],"although":[120],"the":[121],"batches":[123],"sequential.":[125],"Word-level":[126],"substitution":[127],"rewriting":[130],"generally":[131],"showed":[132,158],"greater":[133],"source-relative":[134],"embedding":[135],"resemblance,":[136],"whereas":[137],"regeneration":[139],"received":[140],"higher":[141],"expert":[142,187],"ratings":[143],"for":[144,151],"several":[145],"language-quality":[146],"dimensions":[147],"not":[149],"consistently":[150],"level":[152,165],"appropriateness.":[153,166],"Residual":[154],"word":[156],"density":[157],"weak,":[160],"inconclusive":[161],"pooled":[162],"association":[163],"Whole-text":[167],"cosine":[168],"similarity":[169],"negatively":[171],"semantic":[174],"plausibility":[175],"overall":[176],"positively":[178],"within":[180],"word-level":[181],"substitution.":[182],"source-blind":[186],"judgments":[188],"thus":[189],"provide":[190],"complementary,":[191],"non-interchangeable":[192],"evidence.":[193]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2026-11-06T00:00:00"}
