{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225174403","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","title":"Smarter, but Not Safer: An Empirical Analysis of the Functional-Security Gap in Evolving LLMs","display_name":"Smarter, but Not Safer: An Empirical Analysis of the Functional-Security Gap in Evolving LLMs","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-09-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225174403","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174939","display_name":"IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance (ICSM)","issn_l":"1063-6773","issn":["1063-6773","2576-3148"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"conference"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance and Evolution (ICSME)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"volume":null,"type":"conference-paper","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5107130597","display_name":"Alfonso Cannavale","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0209-5974","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0209-5974"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I131729948","display_name":"University of Salerno","ror":"https://ror.org/0192m2k53","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alfonso Cannavale","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Salerno"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Salerno","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5080742700","display_name":"Gilberto Recupito","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8088-1001","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8088-1001"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I13469542","display_name":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel","ror":"https://ror.org/006e5kg04","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I13469542"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gilberto Recupito","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vrije Universiteit Brussel"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I13469542"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5042827940","display_name":"Coen De Roover","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1710-1268","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1710-1268"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I13469542","display_name":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel","ror":"https://ror.org/006e5kg04","country_code":"BE","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I13469542"]}],"countries":["BE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Coen De Roover","raw_affiliation_strings":["Vrije Universiteit Brussel"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I13469542"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033738898","display_name":"Fabio Palomba","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9337-5116","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9337-5116"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I131729948","display_name":"University of Salerno","ror":"https://ror.org/0192m2k53","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Fabio Palomba","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Salerno"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Salerno","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5079088548","display_name":"Andrea De Lucia","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4238-1425","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4238-1425"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I131729948","display_name":"University of Salerno","ror":"https://ror.org/0192m2k53","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Andrea De Lucia","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Salerno"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Salerno","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I131729948"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"356","last_page":"367"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.9804999828338623,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10260","display_name":"Software Engineering Research","score":0.9804999828338623,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.009399999864399433,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.0026000000070780516,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/large-language-models","display_name":"large language models","score":0.9779999852180481},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code-generation","display_name":"code generation","score":0.5569999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/secure-code-generation","display_name":"secure code generation","score":0.6150000095367432},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/functional-correctness","display_name":"functional correctness","score":0.6880000233650208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/model-scaling","display_name":"model scaling","score":0.6340000033378601},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/code-complexity","display_name":"code complexity","score":0.49799999594688416}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.4731999933719635},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47768531","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1127188","display_name":"Development economics","level":1,"score":0.36480000615119934},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.33340001106262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.3046000003814697},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778137410","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2732820","display_name":"Government (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.3003000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120936955","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2155640","display_name":"Empirical research","level":2,"score":0.2912999987602234},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50522688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189833","display_name":"Economic growth","level":1,"score":0.28369998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C136264566","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159810","display_name":"Economy","level":1,"score":0.2784000039100647},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166052673","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q83021","display_name":"Empirical evidence","level":2,"score":0.26660001277923584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27548731","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q88272","display_name":"Investment (military)","level":3,"score":0.2506999969482422}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174939","display_name":"IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance (ICSM)","issn_l":"1063-6773","issn":["1063-6773","2576-3148"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"conference"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance and Evolution (ICSME)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icsme67971.2026.00039","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210174939","display_name":"IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance (ICSM)","issn_l":"1063-6773","issn":["1063-6773","2576-3148"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"conference"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2026 IEEE International Conference on Software Maintenance and Evolution (ICSME)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":45,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2116693957","https://openalex.org/W2124072292","https://openalex.org/W2125343911","https://openalex.org/W2149860264","https://openalex.org/W2158297335","https://openalex.org/W4308643319","https://openalex.org/W4384026520","https://openalex.org/W4384345708","https://openalex.org/W4385187279","https://openalex.org/W4386982649","https://openalex.org/W4389104713","https://openalex.org/W4391282616","https://openalex.org/W4391307510","https://openalex.org/W4392414327","https://openalex.org/W4396790452","https://openalex.org/W4400316819","https://openalex.org/W4401543590","https://openalex.org/W4402665833","https://openalex.org/W4402671206","https://openalex.org/W4406602186","https://openalex.org/W4407392582","https://openalex.org/W4407551092","https://openalex.org/W4408077546","https://openalex.org/W4409510011","https://openalex.org/W4410553098","https://openalex.org/W4411233154","https://openalex.org/W4411552177","https://openalex.org/W4412071673","https://openalex.org/W4412361352","https://openalex.org/W4413720983","https://openalex.org/W4414219112","https://openalex.org/W4415069501","https://openalex.org/W4415746063","https://openalex.org/W4415879226","https://openalex.org/W4416919290","https://openalex.org/W4417132308","https://openalex.org/W4417132605","https://openalex.org/W6959505596","https://openalex.org/W7077142139","https://openalex.org/W7117103063","https://openalex.org/W7118075625","https://openalex.org/W7124888387","https://openalex.org/W7133198585","https://openalex.org/W7134947125","https://openalex.org/W7160441663"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7221010522","https://openalex.org/W4407938061","https://openalex.org/W7128505394","https://openalex.org/W7167910292","https://openalex.org/W7203839247","https://openalex.org/W7164589242","https://openalex.org/W7167586351","https://openalex.org/W7167251230","https://openalex.org/W7169620992","https://openalex.org/W7204268426"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Large":[0],"Language":[1],"Models":[2],"(LLMs)":[3],"have":[4],"become":[5],"tools":[6],"for":[7,174],"software":[8],"development":[9],"and":[10,22,76,142],"maintenance,":[11],"demonstrating":[12],"impressive":[13],"capabilities":[14,35],"in":[15,41,177],"automating":[16],"tasks":[17],"such":[18],"as":[19,48],"code":[20,101,104,154],"generation":[21],"refactoring.":[23],"However,":[24],"it":[25],"remains":[26],"empirically":[27],"unclear":[28],"whether":[29,44],"the":[30,49,66,73,91,94,143,171],"rapid":[31],"scaling":[32],"of":[33,68,167],"these":[34],"is":[36,162],"accompanied":[37],"by":[38],"proportional":[39],"improvements":[40],"security,":[42],"or":[43],"a":[45],"discrepancy,":[46],"defined":[47],"Security\u2013Functionality":[50],"Gap,":[51],"persists":[52],"across":[53,72,122],"model":[54,168],"generations.":[55],"To":[56],"address":[57],"this":[58],"question,":[59],"we":[60,89],"conducted":[61],"an":[62,82,164],"evolutionary":[63],"study":[64],"analyzing":[65],"trajectory":[67],"12":[69],"state-of-the-art":[70],"models":[71,134,139,146],"GPT,":[74],"Llama,":[75],"Claude":[77],"Sonnet":[78],"lineages.":[79],"By":[80],"leveraging":[81],"outcome-driven":[83],"benchmark":[84],"based":[85],"on":[86],"dynamic":[87],"execution,":[88],"quantified":[90],"divergence":[92],"between":[93],"models\u2019":[95],"ability":[96],"to":[97,152],"generate":[98],"functionally":[99],"correct":[100],"versus":[102],"secure":[103],"over":[105],"four":[106],"sequential":[107],"versions":[108],"per":[109],"lineage.":[110],"Results":[111],"reveal":[112],"that,":[113],"while":[114,132],"functional":[115],"correctness":[116,126],"has":[117,127],"effectively":[118],"plateaued":[119],"(>":[120],"90%)":[121],"all":[123],"families,":[124],"functional-security":[125],"evolved":[128],"more":[129],"slowly.":[130],"Specifically,":[131],"proprietary":[133],"demonstrate":[135],"marginal":[136],"improvements,":[137],"open-weight":[138],"exhibit":[140],"stagnation,":[141],"most":[144],"advanced":[145],"occasionally":[147],"introduce":[148],"new":[149],"regressions":[150],"due":[151],"increased":[153],"complexity.":[155],"These":[156],"findings":[157],"suggest":[158],"that":[159],"security":[160],"alignment":[161],"not":[163],"intrinsic":[165],"byproduct":[166],"scaling,":[169],"highlighting":[170],"urgent":[172],"need":[173],"external":[175],"guardrails":[176],"AI-assisted":[178],"maintenance":[179],"pipelines.t":[180]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-08T12:12:28.789561","created_date":"2026-11-04T00:00:00"}