{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7225004954","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","title":"CSqL-m-H2LA-GRBiTM: categorical square loss-based multi-head hierarchical location attention enabled deep learning mechanism for smishing detection","display_name":"CSqL-m-H2LA-GRBiTM: categorical square loss-based multi-head hierarchical location attention enabled deep learning mechanism for smishing detection","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-10-31","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7225004954","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-77954-z_reference.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-77954-z_reference.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160249722","display_name":"Mohd Shoaib","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I171210897","display_name":"Aligarh Muslim University","ror":"https://ror.org/03kw9gc02","country_code":"IN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I171210897"]}],"countries":["IN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Mohd Shoaib","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Engineering, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, 202002, India"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Engineering, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, 202002, India","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I171210897"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5160249722"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I171210897"],"apc_list":{"value":2690,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2690},"apc_paid":{"value":2690,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2690},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.8932985,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11644","display_name":"Spam and Phishing Detection","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12262","display_name":"Hate Speech and Cyberbullying Detection","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11147","display_name":"Misinformation and Its Impacts","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/smishing-detection","display_name":"smishing detection","score":0.984000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sms-phishing","display_name":"SMS phishing","score":0.953000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gated-recurrent-unit","display_name":"gated recurrent unit","score":0.9340000152587891},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bidirectional-lstm","display_name":"bidirectional LSTM","score":0.9860000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/text-classification","display_name":"text classification","score":0.5270000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/malicious-message-detection","display_name":"malicious message detection","score":0.621999979019165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/probability-calibration","display_name":"probability calibration","score":0.7269999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretability","display_name":"interpretability","score":0.5720000267028809}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.8598999977111816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5274069","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2285707","display_name":"Categorical variable","level":2,"score":0.7820000052452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.6478999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49937458","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2599292","display_name":"Probabilistic logic","level":2,"score":0.6069999933242798},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108583219","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q197536","display_name":"Deep learning","level":2,"score":0.58160001039505},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.5254999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5249999761581421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5198000073432922},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170858558","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1394144","display_name":"Automatic summarization","level":2,"score":0.4657999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77052588","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q644307","display_name":"Constant false alarm rate","level":2,"score":0.41029998660087585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C194051981","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1337691","display_name":"Economic shortage","level":3,"score":0.39340001344680786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C114289077","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3284399","display_name":"Statistical model","level":2,"score":0.38339999318122864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14036430","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3736076","display_name":"Function (biology)","level":2,"score":0.37540000677108765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89611455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804646","display_name":"Mechanism (biology)","level":2,"score":0.37209999561309814},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C29202148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q287260","display_name":"Resource allocation","level":2,"score":0.3393000066280365},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776836416","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1364844","display_name":"False alarm","level":2,"score":0.32580000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153180895","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7148389","display_name":"Pattern recognition (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.3230000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C139945424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1940696","display_name":"Mean squared error","level":2,"score":0.31459999084472656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C35525427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q745881","display_name":"Intrusion detection system","level":2,"score":0.29989999532699585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206345919","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20380951","display_name":"Resource (disambiguation)","level":2,"score":0.2759000062942505},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C96608239","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1199823","display_name":"Statistical power","level":2,"score":0.27059999108314514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779119184","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q294350","display_name":"ALARM","level":2,"score":0.25459998846054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.2522999942302704},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.25110000371932983}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-77954-z_reference.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-77954-z","pdf_url":"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-77954-z_reference.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S196734849","display_name":"Scientific Reports","issn_l":"2045-2322","issn":["2045-2322"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319908","host_organization_name":"Nature Portfolio","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319908","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Nature Portfolio","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Scientific Reports","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225004954.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7225004954.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":1,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W4391741482"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7117354013","https://openalex.org/W7160425819","https://openalex.org/W4414580989","https://openalex.org/W4417404120","https://openalex.org/W4200034585","https://openalex.org/W4416676934","https://openalex.org/W4409931975","https://openalex.org/W4297830654","https://openalex.org/W3183182957","https://openalex.org/W4403911425"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Smishing":[0,197],"detection":[1,36,153],"is":[2,18,91],"an":[3],"effective":[4],"research":[5,95],"area":[6],"that":[7,96,165],"remains":[8],"essential":[9],"in":[10,24,68,93,121,125,206],"the":[11,25,64,69,73,94,102,119,134,144,167,171,175,186,209],"recent":[12],"decade.":[13],"Detection":[14],"of":[15,44,49,104,146,180],"SMS":[16,187,196],"phishing":[17,188],"decisive":[19],"due":[20,39],"to":[21,32,40,140],"adversaries":[22],"evolving":[23],"network":[26],"simultaneously.":[27],"Several":[28],"existing":[29],"researches":[30],"worked":[31],"perform":[33],"accurate":[34],"smishing":[35,99,126],"but":[37],"failed":[38],"certain":[41],"challenges.":[42],"Shortage":[43],"large":[45],"datasets,":[46],"improper":[47],"classification":[48],"legitimate":[50],"and":[51,58,114,137,161,178,183,190,193],"malicious":[52],"messages,":[53],"high":[54,59,204],"computational":[55],"resource":[56],"utilization,":[57],"false":[60],"positive":[61],"rates":[62],"were":[63],"major":[65],"challenges":[66],"addressed":[67],"conventional":[70],"researches.":[71],"Thus,":[72],"Categorical":[74],"Square":[75],"Loss-based":[76],"multi-head":[77],"Hierarchical":[78],"Location":[79],"Attention-enabled":[80],"Gated":[81],"Recurrent":[82],"Unit":[83],"with":[84,158,185,195,208],"Bidirectional":[85],"Long":[86],"Short-Term":[87],"Memory":[88],"(CSqL-m-H2LA-GRBiTM)":[89],"model":[90,109,173],"proposed":[92,129],"presents":[97],"robust":[98,152],"detection,":[100],"leveraging":[101],"power":[103],"artificial":[105],"intelligence":[106],"(AI).":[107],"The":[108,128],"captures":[110],"information":[111],"concerning":[112],"spatial":[113],"temporal":[115],"features,":[116],"which":[117,202],"elevates":[118],"efficiency":[120,205],"handling":[122],"complex":[123],"patterns":[124],"detection.":[127],"m-H2LA":[130],"mechanism":[131],"focuses":[132],"on":[133],"relevant":[135],"messages":[136],"their":[138],"features":[139],"boost":[141],"interpretability.":[142],"Moreover,":[143],"deployment":[145],"a":[147],"CSqL":[148],"loss":[149],"function":[150],"enables":[151],"by":[154],"balancing":[155],"maximum":[156],"separation":[157],"probabilistic":[159],"calibration":[160],"heavily":[162],"penalizes":[163],"misclassifications":[164],"cross":[166],"safety":[168],"boundary.":[169],"Overall,":[170],"CSqL-m-H2LA-GRBiTM":[172],"attains":[174],"accuracy,":[176],"F1-score,":[177],"log-loss":[179],"98.36%,":[181],"96.84%,":[182],"5.09":[184],"dataset":[189],"98.43%,":[191],"97.41%,":[192],"5.23":[194],"Dataset":[198],"at":[199],"K-fold-10":[200],"respectively,":[201],"depicts":[203],"comparison":[207],"traditional":[210],"methods.":[211]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2026-11-01T00:00:00"}