{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7224886012","doi":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","title":"Predicting Officer Involvement in Lethal Force: The Relative Impacts of Educational Attainment and Line-of-Duty Victimization","display_name":"Predicting Officer Involvement in Lethal Force: The Relative Impacts of Educational Attainment and Line-of-Duty Victimization","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-10-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7224886012","doi":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","doi":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","pdf_url":"https://journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk/index.php/ijpcj/article/download/53/39","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407080359","display_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","issn_l":"2977-2230","issn":["2977-2230"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I339756655","host_organization_name":"Leeds Trinity University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I339756655"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk/index.php/ijpcj/article/download/53/39","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160214741","display_name":"Julie Siddique","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I87573096","display_name":"University of North Texas at Dallas","ror":"https://ror.org/01n51v443","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I87573096"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Julie Siddique","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of North Texas at Dallas"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of North Texas at Dallas","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I87573096"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160234991","display_name":"Evelin Castillo","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Evelin Castillo","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.92710538,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"1","issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11076","display_name":"Policing Practices and Perceptions","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11076","display_name":"Policing Practices and Perceptions","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10574","display_name":"Crime Patterns and Interventions","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12138","display_name":"Occupational Health and Performance","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3609","display_name":"Occupational Therapy"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/36","display_name":"Health Professions"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/4","display_name":"Health Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/police-use-of-lethal-force","display_name":"police use of deadly force","score":0.8809999823570251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bachelor-s-degree","display_name":"bachelor's degree","score":0.9190000295639038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/military-service","display_name":"military service","score":0.5950000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/negative-affectivity","display_name":"negative affectivity","score":0.9850000143051147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-reflection","display_name":"cognitive reflection","score":0.9950000047683716}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777189325","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q61022630","display_name":"Officer","level":2,"score":0.8507000207901001},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151956035","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1132755","display_name":"Logistic regression","level":2,"score":0.580299973487854},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C143095724","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q515895","display_name":"Odds","level":3,"score":0.5741999745368958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780262971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44554","display_name":"Law enforcement","level":2,"score":0.5583000183105469},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.5332000255584717},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779297142","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3276412","display_name":"Educational attainment","level":2,"score":0.4860000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780665704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959298","display_name":"Intervention (counseling)","level":2,"score":0.4528000056743622},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190385971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q373494","display_name":"Injury prevention","level":3,"score":0.3970000147819519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.3944999873638153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776729102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q971119","display_name":"Use of force","level":3,"score":0.3882000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C37228920","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1307600","display_name":"Experiential learning","level":2,"score":0.3849000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196083921","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7915758","display_name":"Variance (accounting)","level":2,"score":0.37610000371932983},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187155963","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629029","display_name":"Occupational safety and health","level":2,"score":0.37529999017715454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3017944768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1450463","display_name":"Poison control","level":2,"score":0.3598000109195709},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779298689","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q896527","display_name":"Deadly force","level":2,"score":0.3440000116825104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73484699","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161733","display_name":"Criminology","level":1,"score":0.33889999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166735990","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1750812","display_name":"Human factors and ergonomics","level":3,"score":0.3330000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C526869908","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3298118","display_name":"Suicide prevention","level":3,"score":0.33239999413490295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65409693","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q425265","display_name":"Statistical significance","level":2,"score":0.3222000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120912362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136822","display_name":"Higher education","level":2,"score":0.32179999351501465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C156957248","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1862216","display_name":"Odds ratio","level":2,"score":0.3212999999523163},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.31940001249313354},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70410870","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199906","display_name":"Clinical psychology","level":1,"score":0.31929999589920044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152877465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208042","display_name":"Regression analysis","level":2,"score":0.3174000084400177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778615406","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11072","display_name":"Amnesia","level":2,"score":0.2705000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.26829999685287476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.26460000872612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.2599000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776788475","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q815298","display_name":"Occupational stress","level":2,"score":0.2599000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993259228","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3320364","display_name":"Statistical evidence","level":3,"score":0.2551000118255615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.2547999918460846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84679943","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1925442","display_name":"Common-method variance","level":2,"score":0.25429999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C558461103","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q154430","display_name":"Anxiety","level":2,"score":0.25369998812675476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779777834","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4202277","display_name":"Enforcement","level":2,"score":0.25360000133514404}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","doi":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","pdf_url":"https://journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk/index.php/ijpcj/article/download/53/39","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407080359","display_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","issn_l":"2977-2230","issn":["2977-2230"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I339756655","host_organization_name":"Leeds Trinity University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I339756655"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk:article/53","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk/index.php/ijpcj/article/view/53","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407080359","display_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","issn_l":"2977-2230","issn":["2977-2230"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I339756655","host_organization_name":"Leeds Trinity University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I339756655"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2977-2230","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","doi":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.53","pdf_url":"https://journals.leedstrinity.ac.uk/index.php/ijpcj/article/download/53/39","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407080359","display_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","issn_l":"2977-2230","issn":["2977-2230"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I339756655","host_organization_name":"Leeds Trinity University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I339756655"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.9595999717712402,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"},{"score":0.766700029373169,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/3","display_name":"Good health and well-being"},{"score":0.5385000109672546,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality education"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7224886012.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7224886012.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":7,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2161080627","https://openalex.org/W2965931694","https://openalex.org/W2973373594","https://openalex.org/W3016180809","https://openalex.org/W4239012910","https://openalex.org/W4390150519","https://openalex.org/W6909878353"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2030261335","https://openalex.org/W4285810233","https://openalex.org/W4319950009","https://openalex.org/W7070471618","https://openalex.org/W2160898801","https://openalex.org/W7083590961","https://openalex.org/W2937390452","https://openalex.org/W3021409994","https://openalex.org/W4392639267","https://openalex.org/W1968333705"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Police":[0],"use":[1],"of":[2,95,109,123,128,144,170,181,211],"force":[3,57,115,146,172,214],"continues":[4],"to":[5,90],"draw":[6],"significant":[7,103,137],"public":[8],"and":[9,36,63,119,192,216,230],"scholarly":[10],"attention,":[11],"particularly":[12],"regarding":[13],"how":[14],"officer":[15,53],"characteristics":[16],"shape":[17],"decision-making":[18],"in":[19,55,80,112,167],"high-stakes":[20],"encounters.":[21],"Higher":[22,154],"education":[23,155,221],"is":[24],"frequently":[25],"promoted":[26],"as":[27,133,207],"a":[28,48,157,208,223],"key":[29],"mechanism":[30],"for":[31,61,107,187],"enhancing":[32],"professionalism,":[33],"improving":[34],"de-escalation,":[35],"reducing":[37],"problematic":[38],"behavior.":[39],"This":[40],"study":[41],"examines":[42],"whether":[43],"educational":[44],"attainment,":[45],"specifically":[46],"possessing":[47],"bachelor\u2019s":[49],"degree,":[50],"predicts":[51],"differential":[52],"involvement":[54,116,147,173],"lethal":[56,114,145,171,213],"incidents":[58],"while":[59,219],"controlling":[60],"psychological":[62],"experiential":[64],"variables,":[65],"including":[66],"line-of-duty":[67,130,205],"victimization.":[68],"Analyzing":[69],"secondary":[70],"data":[71],"from":[72],"64":[73],"law":[74],"enforcement":[75],"officers":[76],"across":[77],"seven":[78],"agencies":[79],"two":[81],"southern":[82],"U.S.":[83],"states,":[84],"binary":[85],"logistic":[86],"regression":[87],"was":[88,101,178],"conducted":[89],"evaluate":[91],"the":[92,110,134,142,168],"relative":[93],"impact":[94],"higher":[96],"education.":[97],"The":[98],"overall":[99],"model":[100],"statistically":[102,136],"(Chi^2(5)=23.166,":[104],"p<.001),":[105],"accounting":[106],"46.7%":[108],"variance":[111],"career":[113,212],"(Nagelkerke":[117],"R^2=.467)":[118],"correctly":[120],"classifying":[121],"84.4%":[122],"cases.":[124],"An":[125],"officer's":[126],"history":[127],"prior":[129,204],"victimization":[131],"emerged":[132],"primary":[135],"predictor":[138],"(B=2.864,":[139],"p=.002),":[140],"increasing":[141],"odds":[143,169],"by":[148],"more":[149],"than":[150],"seventeen":[151],"times":[152],"(Exp(B)=17.525).":[153],"demonstrated":[156],"substantial":[158],"protective":[159,225],"directional":[160],"effect,":[161],"associated":[162],"with":[163],"an":[164],"80.6%":[165],"reduction":[166],"(Exp(B)=0.194),":[174],"though":[175],"this":[176],"relationship":[177],"slightly":[179],"shy":[180],"statistical":[182,199],"significance":[183],"(p=.078).":[184],"Control":[185],"measures":[186],"military":[188],"service,":[189],"negative":[190],"emotionality,":[191],"cognitive":[193],"reflection":[194],"also":[195],"did":[196],"not":[197],"reach":[198],"significance.":[200],"These":[201],"findings":[202],"highlight":[203],"trauma":[206,228],"critical":[209],"driver":[210],"encounters":[215],"suggest":[217],"that":[218],"formal":[220],"remains":[222],"promising":[224],"factor,":[226],"post-incident":[227],"support":[229],"early":[231],"intervention":[232],"systems":[233],"are":[234],"vital":[235],"operational":[236],"needs.":[237]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2026-10-31T00:00:00"}