{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7224809171","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","title":"How many mutations does it take to evolve a new function?","display_name":"How many mutations does it take to evolve a new function?","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-10-30","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7224809171","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","pdf_url":"https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2026/10/30/2026.10.29.762632.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402567","display_name":"bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2750212522","host_organization_name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2750212522"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"bioRxiv","raw_type":"posted-content"},"volume":null,"type":"preprint","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2026/10/30/2026.10.29.762632.full.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5115409355","display_name":"Nida Farheen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6630-854X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6630-854X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","display_name":"Cornell University","ror":"https://ror.org/05bnh6r87","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I6902469","display_name":"Brandeis University","ror":"https://ror.org/05abbep66","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nida Farheen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biochemistry, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA; current affiliation: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6630-854X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biochemistry, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA; current affiliation: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I205783295","https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5160166502","display_name":"Zachary Boroda","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I6902469","display_name":"Brandeis University","ror":"https://ror.org/05abbep66","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zachary Boroda","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA; current affiliation: Amazon Web Services, Arlington, VA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA; current affiliation: Amazon Web Services, Arlington, VA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012340839","display_name":"Ethan Levien","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6825-2966","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6825-2966"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107672454","display_name":"Dartmouth College","ror":"https://ror.org/049s0rh22","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107672454"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ethan Levien","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mathematics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6825-2966","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mathematics, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107672454"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5029016892","display_name":"Jan\u00e9 Kondev","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7522-7144","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7522-7144"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I6902469","display_name":"Brandeis University","ror":"https://ror.org/05abbep66","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jan\u00e9 Kondev","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7522-7144","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Physics, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5029016892"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I6902469"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11764","display_name":"Evolution and Genetic Dynamics","score":0.9535999894142151,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1311","display_name":"Genetics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11764","display_name":"Evolution and Genetic Dynamics","score":0.9535999894142151,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1311","display_name":"Genetics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10621","display_name":"Gene Regulatory Network Analysis","score":0.010700000450015068,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1312","display_name":"Molecular Biology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/13","display_name":"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11975","display_name":"Evolutionary Algorithms and Applications","score":0.009600000455975533,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/genotype-phenotype-map","display_name":"genotype-phenotype mapping","score":0.9750000238418579},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/boolean-networks","display_name":"Boolean networks","score":0.7300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/network-rewiring","display_name":"network rewiring","score":0.640999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/power-law-scaling","display_name":"power-law scaling","score":0.9190000295639038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/network-geometry","display_name":"network geometry","score":0.5950000286102295}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134444547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q585230","display_name":"Boolean network","level":3,"score":0.6880000233650208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.6067000031471252},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187455244","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q942353","display_name":"Boolean function","level":2,"score":0.5878000259399414},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14036430","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3736076","display_name":"Function (biology)","level":2,"score":0.5817999839782715},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C501734568","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42918","display_name":"Mutation","level":3,"score":0.5342000126838684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780586882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7520643","display_name":"Simple (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.4970000088214874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4603999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.4309000074863434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.36880001425743103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70721500","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177005","display_name":"Computational biology","level":1,"score":0.353300005197525},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780388253","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5421508","display_name":"Exponent","level":2,"score":0.32010000944137573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C54355233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7162","display_name":"Genetics","level":1,"score":0.3109999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8880873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","level":2,"score":0.30079999566078186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992708514","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q48968323","display_name":"Quantitative biology","level":2,"score":0.29409998655319214},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67499762","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4943358","display_name":"Boolean model","level":2,"score":0.2906000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.28119999170303345},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778755073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10858537","display_name":"Scale (ratio)","level":2,"score":0.27799999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.27320000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158465420","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1979515","display_name":"Boolean expression","level":3,"score":0.2718000113964081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196836630","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4753279","display_name":"And-inverter graph","level":4,"score":0.27140000462532043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.27090001106262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28225019","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4915005","display_name":"Biological network","level":2,"score":0.25189998745918274}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","pdf_url":"https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2026/10/30/2026.10.29.762632.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402567","display_name":"bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2750212522","host_organization_name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2750212522"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"bioRxiv","raw_type":"posted-content"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.10.29.762632","pdf_url":"https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2026/10/30/2026.10.29.762632.full.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402567","display_name":"bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2750212522","host_organization_name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2750212522"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"bioRxiv","raw_type":"posted-content"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G6821688019","display_name":"eMB: Data-driven prediction of phenotypic heterogeneity: from single-cells to populations","funder_award_id":"2527337","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310400","display_name":"Dartmouth College","ror":"https://ror.org/049s0rh22"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320315474","display_name":"Chan Zuckerberg Initiative","ror":"https://ror.org/02qenvm24"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320332161","display_name":"National Institutes of Health","ror":"https://ror.org/01cwqze88"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7224809171.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7224809171.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":31,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1964778231","https://openalex.org/W1971399377","https://openalex.org/W1977940795","https://openalex.org/W1993900316","https://openalex.org/W1996257298","https://openalex.org/W2005356799","https://openalex.org/W2025180342","https://openalex.org/W2062348064","https://openalex.org/W2070015601","https://openalex.org/W2078935281","https://openalex.org/W2088791835","https://openalex.org/W2125395354","https://openalex.org/W2126606094","https://openalex.org/W2126643167","https://openalex.org/W2129630463","https://openalex.org/W2142400903","https://openalex.org/W2153650805","https://openalex.org/W2165327448","https://openalex.org/W2268704259","https://openalex.org/W2343034755","https://openalex.org/W2483469645","https://openalex.org/W2796850496","https://openalex.org/W2905701416","https://openalex.org/W3008449094","https://openalex.org/W3125507440","https://openalex.org/W4253470637","https://openalex.org/W4292133655","https://openalex.org/W4362508414","https://openalex.org/W4388937394","https://openalex.org/W4393871925","https://openalex.org/W7162005170"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2127405536","https://openalex.org/W1507892257","https://openalex.org/W2153697543","https://openalex.org/W1750078949","https://openalex.org/W3008449094","https://openalex.org/W2031691117","https://openalex.org/W4233758394","https://openalex.org/W2095286913","https://openalex.org/W2221826353","https://openalex.org/W2937524596"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"ABSTRACT":[0],"Biochemical":[1],"and":[2,94],"genetic":[3],"networks":[4],"in":[5,32,80,149,193],"cells":[6],"evolve":[7,66,198],"to":[8,18,30,65,73,135,197],"produce":[9],"new":[10,68,138,200],"functions.":[11],"Evolution":[12],"is":[13,43,70,110],"guided":[14],"by":[15,116,175],"the":[16,26,36,56,81,97,101,104,107,111,123,130,145,150,155,161,166,180,187,190,195],"genotype":[17,102],"phenotype":[19],"map":[20,192],"which":[21,46],"describes":[22],"how":[23],"mutations":[24,61,133,158],"at":[25,35],"molecular":[27],"scale":[28],"lead":[29],"changes":[31],"network":[33,99,108,114,167],"function":[34,106,140,143],"cellular":[37],"scale.":[38],"The":[39,92,113],"number":[40,124,131,146,156,162],"of":[41,83,88,96,118,125,132,144,147,157,163,165,179,189],"genotypes":[42],"astronomically":[44],"large":[45],"makes":[47],"these":[48],"maps":[49],"very":[50],"high":[51],"dimensional.":[52],"In":[53],"this":[54,78],"context,":[55],"simple":[57,85],"question:":[58],"How":[59],"many":[60],"does":[62],"it":[63],"take":[64],"a":[67,84,89,137,142,169,199],"function?,":[69],"usually":[71],"hard":[72],"answer.":[74],"Here":[75],"we":[76],"consider":[77],"question":[79],"context":[82],"Boolean-network":[86],"model":[87],"genotype-phenotype":[90,181,191],"map.":[91,182],"nodes":[93,126,148,164],"edges":[95],"Boolean":[98,105,139],"represent":[100],"while":[103,121],"computes":[109],"phenotype.":[112],"evolves":[115],"rewiring":[117],"its":[119],"edges,":[120],"keeping":[122],"fixed.":[127],"We":[128,152],"compute":[129],"needed":[134],"achieve":[136],"as":[141,168],"network.":[151],"show":[153],"that":[154],"scales":[159],"with":[160,171],"power-law":[170],"an":[172],"exponent":[173],"determined":[174],"local":[176],"geometrical":[177],"features":[178],"Our":[183],"theoretical":[184],"study":[185],"emphasizes":[186],"role":[188],"determining":[194],"time":[196],"function.":[201]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2026-10-31T00:00:00"}
