{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7204205286","doi":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","title":"Diagnosing Physics-Informed Neural Networks for Motor Thermal Virtual Sensing: A Controlled Study on Single-Phase Induction Motors","display_name":"Diagnosing Physics-Informed Neural Networks for Motor Thermal Virtual Sensing: A Controlled Study on Single-Phase Induction Motors","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7204205286","doi":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.4236/airr.2026.23008","doi":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","pdf_url":"https://www.scirp.net/pdf/airr_2970142.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407059310","display_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","issn_l":"3143-3987","issn":["3143-3987","3143-3995"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320480","host_organization_name":"Scientific Research Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320480"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Scientific Research Publishing"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","raw_type":"journal-article"},"parent_works":[],"lineage":["https://openalex.org/W7204205286"],"child_works_count":0,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://www.scirp.net/pdf/airr_2970142.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5019569094","display_name":"Timothy Adewale Adeyi","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200845125","display_name":"Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02y0rxk19","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I70593384","display_name":"Lead City University","ror":"https://ror.org/043z5qa52","country_code":"NG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]}],"countries":["CN","NG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Timothy A. Adeyi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mechanical Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria","School of Automation , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mechanical Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5013649214","display_name":"Adrian David Cheok","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6316-2339","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6316-2339"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200845125","display_name":"Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02y0rxk19","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Adrian D. Cheok","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Automation , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Automation , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009569110","display_name":"Steven Zhiying Zhou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8455-1915","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8455-1915"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210125878","display_name":"Suzhou Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/03ebk0c60","country_code":"CN","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210125878"]}],"countries":["CN","SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Steven Z. Zhou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical Computer Engineering , National University of Singapore , Singapore","NUS Suzhou Research Institute , Suzhou , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical Computer Engineering , National University of Singapore , Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"NUS Suzhou Research Institute , Suzhou , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210125878"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5148143539","display_name":"Daniel O. Olasupo","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I70593384","display_name":"Lead City University","ror":"https://ror.org/043z5qa52","country_code":"NG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]}],"countries":["NG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Daniel O. Olasupo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5148074685","display_name":"Muhammed A. Makhdoom","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I200845125","display_name":"Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/02y0rxk19","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Muhammed A. Makhdoom","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Information & Communication Engineering , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Information & Communication Engineering , Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology , Nanjing , China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I200845125"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5014411646","display_name":"Samuel Enochoghene","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8751-4351","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8751-4351"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I70593384","display_name":"Lead City University","ror":"https://ror.org/043z5qa52","country_code":"NG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]}],"countries":["NG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Samuel O. EnochOghene","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering , Lead City University , Ibadan , Nigeria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I70593384"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"02","issue":"03","first_page":"127","last_page":"146"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11206","display_name":"Model Reduction and Neural Networks","score":0.5077999830245972,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3109","display_name":"Statistical and Nonlinear Physics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11206","display_name":"Model Reduction and Neural Networks","score":0.5077999830245972,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3109","display_name":"Statistical and Nonlinear Physics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10278","display_name":"Electric Motor Design and Analysis","score":0.40139999985694885,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10220","display_name":"Machine Fault Diagnosis Techniques","score":0.029899999499320984,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics-informed-neural-networks","display_name":"physics-informed neural networks","score":0.9990000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/single-phase-induction-motor","display_name":"single-phase induction motor","score":0.9509999752044678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-degradation","display_name":"data degradation","score":0.39899998903274536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/missing-data","display_name":"missing data","score":0.5379999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noisy-measurements","display_name":"noisy measurements","score":0.7739999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bearing-friction","display_name":"bearing friction","score":0.4399999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/copper-loss","display_name":"copper loss","score":0.6800000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convective-cooling","display_name":"convective cooling","score":0.7649999856948853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/physics-informed-regularization","display_name":"physics-informed regularization","score":0.75}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.6182000041007996},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8642999","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4171168","display_name":"Hyperparameter","level":2,"score":0.5418000221252441},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779343474","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3109175","display_name":"Context (archaeology)","level":2,"score":0.4925999939441681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.45680001378059387},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.42719998955726624},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204530211","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q752823","display_name":"Thermal","level":2,"score":0.4124999940395355},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80962145","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207450","display_name":"Induction motor","level":3,"score":0.3497999906539917},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47702885","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5441227","display_name":"Feedforward neural network","level":3,"score":0.34310001134872437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C21200559","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7451068","display_name":"Sensitivity (control systems)","level":2,"score":0.3407999873161316},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3237000107765198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776135515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17143721","display_name":"Regularization (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.3192000091075897},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179690561","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4316110","display_name":"Underdetermined system","level":2,"score":0.3125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62354387","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q875399","display_name":"Boundary (topology)","level":2,"score":0.30469998717308044},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779010991","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2720909","display_name":"Artifact (error)","level":2,"score":0.26980000734329224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9357733","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6878417","display_name":"Missing data","level":2,"score":0.260699987411499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C72688512","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q908282","display_name":"Thermal runaway","level":4,"score":0.2515999972820282}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.4236/airr.2026.23008","doi":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","pdf_url":"https://www.scirp.net/pdf/airr_2970142.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407059310","display_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","issn_l":"3143-3987","issn":["3143-3987","3143-3995"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320480","host_organization_name":"Scientific Research Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320480"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Scientific Research Publishing"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.4236/airr.2026.23008","doi":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.4236/airr.2026.23008","pdf_url":"https://www.scirp.net/pdf/airr_2970142.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S7407059310","display_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","issn_l":"3143-3987","issn":["3143-3987","3143-3995"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320480","host_organization_name":"Scientific Research Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320480"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Scientific Research Publishing"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Advances in Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Research","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7204205286.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7204205286.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":17,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2177475920","https://openalex.org/W2288981278","https://openalex.org/W2536094347","https://openalex.org/W2767434619","https://openalex.org/W2772097715","https://openalex.org/W2773025718","https://openalex.org/W2899283552","https://openalex.org/W3000156337","https://openalex.org/W3018821603","https://openalex.org/W3129940801","https://openalex.org/W3170494210","https://openalex.org/W3174295481","https://openalex.org/W4312096985","https://openalex.org/W4389162505","https://openalex.org/W4393285797","https://openalex.org/W4396886661","https://openalex.org/W4404985717"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7168103455","https://openalex.org/W7130786419","https://openalex.org/W7160641006","https://openalex.org/W7196939582","https://openalex.org/W4360764287","https://openalex.org/W4297030563","https://openalex.org/W6995918091","https://openalex.org/W7223182708","https://openalex.org/W4396886661","https://openalex.org/W4380237914"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Physics-informed":[0],"neural":[1],"networks":[2,24],"(PINNs)":[3],"have":[4],"been":[5],"proposed":[6],"for":[7,41,84,136,270],"motor":[8,51],"thermal":[9,68,80,274],"virtual":[10,275],"sensing,":[11],"yet":[12],"the":[13,66,72,198,217,228,237],"specific":[14],"conditions":[15,135],"under":[16,145,260],"which":[17,56],"embedded":[18],"physics":[19,129,137,199],"constraints":[20],"outperform":[21],"identical":[22],"unconstrained":[23],"remain":[25],"unclear.":[26],"This":[27],"paper":[28],"presents":[29],"a":[30,35,39,46,78,118,122,171,253],"controlled":[31],"diagnostic":[32],"study":[33,64],"comparing":[34],"feedforward":[36],"DNN":[37,183,210,218],"and":[38,90,112,121,152,166,178,184],"PINN":[40,185,230],"winding":[42],"temperature":[43,108,176],"estimation":[44],"in":[45,273],"1":[47],"HP":[48],"single-phase":[49],"induction":[50],"(SPIM).":[52],"Unlike":[53],"prior":[54,138,200,240,256],"work,":[55],"focused":[57],"on":[58],"permanent":[59],"magnet":[60],"synchronous":[61],"motors,":[62],"this":[63],"addresses":[65],"distinct":[67],"modeling":[69],"challenges":[70],"of":[71,224],"SPIM\u2019s":[73],"dual-winding":[74],"structure":[75],"by":[76,205],"incorporating":[77],"first-order":[79,239,255],"ODE":[81],"that":[82,216,236,249],"accounts":[83],"main/auxiliary":[85],"copper":[86],"losses,":[87],"bearing":[88],"friction,":[89],"convective":[91],"cooling.":[92],"We":[93],"systematically":[94],"evaluate":[95,142],"performance":[96],"across":[97,127],"five":[98],"standard":[99],"conditions:":[100],"in-distribution":[101],"operation,":[102],"moderate":[103],"load-profile":[104],"shift,":[105,109],"severe":[106],"ambient":[107],"cold-start":[110],"transients,":[111],"sensor":[113],"noise.":[114],"Additionally,":[115],"we":[116,140],"conduct":[117],"self-supervised":[119,229],"experiment":[120],"systematic":[123],"lambda":[124,213],"sensitivity":[125],"analysis":[126,214],"seven":[128],"loss":[130],"weights.":[131],"To":[132],"establish":[133,248],"boundary":[134,173],"effectiveness,":[139],"further":[141],"both":[143],"models":[144],"extreme":[146],"distribution":[147],"shifts":[148],"(E1":[149],"-":[150,157],"E3)":[151],"degraded":[153,261],"data":[154,191,262],"scenarios":[155],"(E4":[156],"E7)":[158],"encompassing":[159],"sparse":[160],"sampling,":[161],"missing":[162],"data,":[163],"biased":[164],"coverage,":[165],"noisy":[167],"measurements.":[168],"Results":[169],"reveal":[170],"critical":[172],"condition:":[174],"when":[175,190],"labels":[177],"temporal":[179],"context":[180],"are":[181,192],"available,":[182],"achieve":[186],"equivalent":[187],"accuracy.":[188],"However,":[189],"sparse,":[193],"missing,":[194],"biased,":[195],"or":[196],"noisy,":[197],"becomes":[201],"valuable,":[202],"reducing":[203],"MAE":[204],"approximately":[206],"10%":[207],"relative":[208],"to":[209],"alone.":[211],"The":[212],"confirms":[215],"advantage":[219],"is":[220,241,257],"not":[221],"an":[222],"artifact":[223],"hyperparameter":[225],"selection,":[226],"while":[227],"fails":[231],"(MAE":[232],">":[233],"30\u02daC),":[234],"demonstrating":[235],"simplified":[238,254],"underdetermined":[242],"without":[243],"label":[244],"supervision.":[245],"These":[246],"findings":[247],"physics-informed":[250],"regularization":[251],"using":[252],"beneficial":[258],"only":[259],"conditions,":[263],"providing":[264],"practitioners":[265],"with":[266],"clear":[267],"decision":[268],"rules":[269],"method":[271],"selection":[272],"sensing.":[276]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2026-08-26T00:00:00"}
