{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7204187189","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","title":"What students ask matters: LLM interaction depth, task quality, and immediate recall in higher education","display_name":"What students ask matters: LLM interaction depth, task quality, and immediate recall in higher education","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-08-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7204187189","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201537","display_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","issn_l":"2365-9440","issn":["2365-9440"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","jufo-2","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"diamond","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5112746593","display_name":"Vangelis Tsiligkiris","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I52590639","display_name":"Nottingham Trent University","ror":"https://ror.org/04xyxjd90","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Vangelis Tsiligkiris","raw_affiliation_strings":["Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Nottingham Business School, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5112746593"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I52590639"],"apc_list":{"value":0,"currency":"USD","value_usd":0},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.68911376,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"1","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.6582000255584717,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.6582000255584717,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14414","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Education","score":0.24819999933242798,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11516","display_name":"Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes","score":0.011699999682605267,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/large-language-models","display_name":"large language models","score":0.9369999766349792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/depth-of-interaction","display_name":"depth of interaction","score":0.8019999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/task-quality","display_name":"task quality","score":0.8339999914169312},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/immediate-recall","display_name":"immediate recall","score":0.9800000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/graduate-students","display_name":"graduate students","score":0.7639999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/retrieval-practice","display_name":"retrieval practice","score":0.7599999904632568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/elaboration","display_name":"elaboration","score":0.8379999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/self-testing","display_name":"self-testing","score":0.7680000066757202},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spaced-retrieval","display_name":"spaced retrieval","score":0.6919999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/knowledge-retention","display_name":"knowledge retention","score":0.36000001430511475}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C100660578","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18733","display_name":"Recall","level":2,"score":0.8202999830245972},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.6962000131607056},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C102931765","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189673","display_name":"Dissociation (chemistry)","level":2,"score":0.6189000010490417},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.5313000082969666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C511192102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5156948","display_name":"Comprehension","level":2,"score":0.5278000235557556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120912362","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q136822","display_name":"Higher education","level":2,"score":0.5164999961853027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90329073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q914232","display_name":"Ask price","level":2,"score":0.4867999851703644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.45089998841285706},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175154964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q380077","display_name":"Task analysis","level":3,"score":0.4000999927520752},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12725497","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q810247","display_name":"Baseline (sea)","level":2,"score":0.39809998869895935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779530757","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1207505","display_name":"Quality (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.3695000112056732},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.3650999963283539},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C75630572","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q538904","display_name":"Applied psychology","level":1,"score":0.3522999882698059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778780117","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3269423","display_name":"Reading comprehension","level":3,"score":0.34549999237060547},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118147538","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1126970","display_name":"Metacognition","level":3,"score":0.30790001153945923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44777696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7302270","display_name":"Recall test","level":4,"score":0.28870001435279846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776035688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1606558","display_name":"Affect (linguistics)","level":2,"score":0.28600001335144043},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777648619","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2845208","display_name":"Learning analytics","level":2,"score":0.2831000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145633318","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207125","display_name":"Nonverbal communication","level":2,"score":0.28209999203681946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152877465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208042","display_name":"Regression analysis","level":2,"score":0.2705000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.25999999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.25369998812675476},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C85973986","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1091731","display_name":"Exploratory research","level":2,"score":0.25}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201537","display_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","issn_l":"2365-9440","issn":["2365-9440"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","jufo-2","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:514279fea9dc4d30b45a1900ba0aed4a","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/514279fea9dc4d30b45a1900ba0aed4a","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, Vol 23, Iss 1 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s41239-026-00617-6.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210201537","display_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","issn_l":"2365-9440","issn":["2365-9440"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","jufo-2","ki-jl-1","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319965","host_organization_name":"Springer Nature","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Quality education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.9235000014305115}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"display_name":"Quality education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.825064480304718}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7204187189.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7204187189.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":29,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1984935883","https://openalex.org/W1987971958","https://openalex.org/W1990451873","https://openalex.org/W2008199624","https://openalex.org/W2015040676","https://openalex.org/W2091097903","https://openalex.org/W2111804672","https://openalex.org/W2163569782","https://openalex.org/W2340539079","https://openalex.org/W4323655724","https://openalex.org/W4366783381","https://openalex.org/W4376867438","https://openalex.org/W4384461076","https://openalex.org/W4384464487","https://openalex.org/W4388095513","https://openalex.org/W4391006361","https://openalex.org/W4400128681","https://openalex.org/W4400410221","https://openalex.org/W4400420376","https://openalex.org/W4400668042","https://openalex.org/W4400770292","https://openalex.org/W4404173560","https://openalex.org/W4406026056","https://openalex.org/W4406194171","https://openalex.org/W4406569432","https://openalex.org/W4408072273","https://openalex.org/W4410008514","https://openalex.org/W4410129808","https://openalex.org/W7116940362"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Large":[1],"Language":[2],"Models":[3],"(LLMs)":[4],"are":[5,228],"rapidly":[6],"transforming":[7],"higher":[8,165],"education,":[9],"yet":[10],"evidence":[11,193],"on":[12,127],"how":[13],"interaction":[14,58],"patterns":[15],"affect":[16],"learning":[17,40,255],"remains":[18],"limited.":[19],"This":[20,189],"study":[21],"examines":[22],"whether":[23],"explanation-seeking":[24,118],"dialogue":[25,209],"with":[26,31,99,122,135,151,155,191,215],"an":[27,48,54],"LLM":[28],"is":[29],"associated":[30,98,121,134,150],"task":[32,100],"quality":[33,101,182],"and":[34,53,72,104,183,270,284],"immediate":[35,55,78,136,267],"recall":[36,137,185],"in":[37,117,186],"a":[38,46,114,128,164,178,246],"controlled":[39],"session.":[41],"Twenty-two":[42],"postgraduate":[43],"students":[44,161],"completed":[45],"pre-test,":[47],"LLM-assisted":[49],"neuroeconomics":[50],"case":[51],"task,":[52],"post-test.":[56],"Fine-grained":[57],"logs":[59],"captured":[60],"per-turn":[61],"telemetry,":[62],"enabling":[63],"extraction":[64],"of":[65,68],"Depth":[66,95,131],"(proportion":[67],"\"why/how/explain\"":[69],"prompts),":[70],"Volume,":[71],"Pacing":[73],"features.":[74],"Results":[75],"showed":[76],"large":[77],"pre\u2013post":[79],"score":[80,167],"gains":[81,227],"(Cohen\u2019s":[82],"d":[83],"z":[84],"=":[85,107,110,139,143,169,265],"2.12,":[86],"p":[87,109,142,172],"<":[88,173],".001).":[89,174],"In":[90],"the":[91,204,234],"task-quality":[92],"regression":[93],"model,":[94],"was":[96,120,132],"positively":[97],"beyond":[102],"baseline":[103,152],"Volume":[105],"(\u03b2":[106,138,168],"6.27,":[108],".006),":[111],"indicating":[112],"that":[113,194,207],"one-standard-deviation":[115],"increase":[116],"prompts":[119],"approximately":[123],"six":[124],"additional":[125],"marks":[126],"0\u2013100":[129],"scale.":[130],"not":[133,238],"\u2212":[140,170],"0.014,":[141],".728);":[144],"instead,":[145],"gain":[146],"scores":[147],"were":[148],"strongly":[149],"knowledge,":[153],"consistent":[154],"reduced":[156],"headroom":[157],"for":[158],"improvement":[159],"among":[160],"starting":[162],"from":[163],"pre-test":[166],"0.161,":[171],"The":[175],"findings":[176],"indicate":[177],"dissociation":[179,205],"between":[180],"performance":[181],"short-term":[184],"LLM-supported":[187],"study.":[188],"aligns":[190],"cognitive-psychology":[192],"elaboration":[195],"improves":[196],"comprehension":[197,226],"while":[198],"retrieval":[199,224],"practice":[200],"consolidates":[201],"retention.":[202],"Pedagogically,":[203],"suggests":[206],"depth-oriented":[208],"may":[210],"need":[211],"to":[212,229,254],"be":[213],"paired":[214],"deliberate":[216],"memory-strengthening":[217],"activities":[218,241],"such":[219,240],"as":[220],"self-testing":[221],"or":[222],"spaced":[223],"if":[225],"translate":[230],"into":[231],"recall,":[232],"although":[233],"present":[235],"design":[236],"does":[237],"test":[239],"directly.":[242],"Methodologically,":[243],"it":[244],"contributes":[245],"replicable,":[247],"privacy-preserving":[248],"instrumentation":[249],"pipeline":[250],"linking":[251],"conversational":[252],"telemetry":[253],"outcomes.":[256],"Limitations":[257],"include":[258],"single-group":[259],"design,":[260],"small":[261],"sample":[262],"(":[263],"n":[264],"22),":[266],"testing":[268],"only,":[269],"keyword-based":[271],"depth":[272,286],"proxies.":[273],"Future":[274],"work":[275],"should":[276],"randomise":[277],"assistance":[278],"styles,":[279],"incorporate":[280],"delayed":[281],"retention":[282],"tests,":[283],"refine":[285],"measurement":[287],"through":[288],"semantic":[289],"coding.":[290]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-09-02T07:38:04.252551","created_date":"2026-08-26T00:00:00"}