{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7204079273","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","title":"A Survey of Quantum Key Distribution Networks: Architectures, Hardware Platforms, and Control-Plane Integration","display_name":"A Survey of Quantum Key Distribution Networks: Architectures, Hardware Platforms, and Control-Plane Integration","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7204079273","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3727139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5093818200","display_name":"Hamza Korhan","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5219-5215","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5219-5215"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hamza Korhan","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5219-5215","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5089057052","display_name":"Mert Bayraktar","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0337-7650","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0337-7650"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mert Bayraktar","raw_affiliation_strings":["Starion Luxembourg S.A"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0337-7650","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Starion Luxembourg S.A","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5051607811","display_name":"Francesco Vista","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2728-0642","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2728-0642"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Francesco Vista","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2728-0642","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5119738513","display_name":"Yves Schmit","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2610-2770","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2610-2770"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yves Schmit","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cyber Research Hub"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-2610-2770","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cyber Research Hub","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5068424260","display_name":"Juan Carlos Merlano Dunc\u00e1n","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9652-679X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9652-679X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Juan Carlos Merlano- Duncan","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9652-679X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016154330","display_name":"Symeon Chatzinotas","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5122-0001","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5122-0001"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I186903577","display_name":"University of Luxembourg","ror":"https://ror.org/036x5ad56","country_code":"LU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}],"countries":["LU"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Symeon Chatzinotas","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Luxembourg"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5122-0001","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Luxembourg","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I186903577"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":2075,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2075},"apc_paid":{"value":2075,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2075},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":null,"first_page":"134496","last_page":"134523"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10020","display_name":"Quantum Information and Cryptography","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3107","display_name":"Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13983","display_name":"Cybersecurity and Information Systems","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10964","display_name":"Wireless Communication Security Techniques","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-key-distribution-networks","display_name":"quantum key distribution networks","score":0.9089999794960022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fpga-acceleration","display_name":"FPGA acceleration","score":0.6660000085830688},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/system-on-chip","display_name":"system-on-chip","score":0.8740000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/quantum-randomness","display_name":"quantum randomness","score":0.6039999723434448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key-distillation","display_name":"key distillation","score":0.8069999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/key-management-system","display_name":"key management system","score":0.8920000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multi-vendor-interoperability","display_name":"multi-vendor interoperability","score":0.8270000219345093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/post-quantum-cryptography","display_name":"post-quantum cryptography","score":0.8289999961853027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/network-scalability","display_name":"network scalability","score":0.38600000739097595}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.756600022315979},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95466800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1027298","display_name":"Quantum key distribution","level":3,"score":0.7186999917030334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5774999856948853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C9390403","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3966","display_name":"Computer hardware","level":1,"score":0.47530001401901245},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110121322","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q865811","display_name":"Distribution (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.40369999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C58053490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q176555","display_name":"Quantum computer","level":3,"score":0.3901999890804291},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84114770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q46344","display_name":"Quantum","level":2,"score":0.36629998683929443},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149635348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193040","display_name":"Embedded system","level":1,"score":0.3659000098705292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42935608","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190411","display_name":"Field-programmable gate array","level":2,"score":0.2793000042438507},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C459310","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q117801","display_name":"Computational science","level":1,"score":0.27320000529289246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.2709999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C125411270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q18653","display_name":"Encoding (memory)","level":2,"score":0.2678999900817871}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3727139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:bf4152044d8d465b866b61467eb21c10","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/bf4152044d8d465b866b61467eb21c10","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 14, Pp 134496-134523 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2026.3727139","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2026.3727139","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5378999710083008,"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":115,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1530334302","https://openalex.org/W1596382714","https://openalex.org/W1970948459","https://openalex.org/W1975408841","https://openalex.org/W1981525690","https://openalex.org/W1986660568","https://openalex.org/W1988838064","https://openalex.org/W1994935264","https://openalex.org/W1998868411","https://openalex.org/W2001286168","https://openalex.org/W2003762972","https://openalex.org/W2005293531","https://openalex.org/W2009441850","https://openalex.org/W2011008529","https://openalex.org/W2011021198","https://openalex.org/W2015179126","https://openalex.org/W2017636475","https://openalex.org/W2020272675","https://openalex.org/W2025267340","https://openalex.org/W2040559996","https://openalex.org/W2047307840","https://openalex.org/W2049471987","https://openalex.org/W2051051926","https://openalex.org/W2057469797","https://openalex.org/W2058302064","https://openalex.org/W2071764857","https://openalex.org/W2088138918","https://openalex.org/W2105027281","https://openalex.org/W2120755151","https://openalex.org/W2120885659","https://openalex.org/W2121213780","https://openalex.org/W2135328793","https://openalex.org/W2136747138","https://openalex.org/W2138754627","https://openalex.org/W2139024341","https://openalex.org/W2139423682","https://openalex.org/W2144277460","https://openalex.org/W2145788847","https://openalex.org/W2154300278","https://openalex.org/W2156136564","https://openalex.org/W2164253138","https://openalex.org/W2168676717","https://openalex.org/W2168925735","https://openalex.org/W2247946197","https://openalex.org/W2342780411","https://openalex.org/W2403732950","https://openalex.org/W2473315843","https://openalex.org/W2560581185","https://openalex.org/W2589855919","https://openalex.org/W2606282679","https://openalex.org/W2607664690","https://openalex.org/W2621027552","https://openalex.org/W2728092904","https://openalex.org/W2730052586","https://openalex.org/W2764282093","https://openalex.org/W2784781042","https://openalex.org/W2799278992","https://openalex.org/W2803190922","https://openalex.org/W2807454218","https://openalex.org/W2897264299","https://openalex.org/W2943394744","https://openalex.org/W2948602808","https://openalex.org/W2950669951","https://openalex.org/W2963166063","https://openalex.org/W2975430658","https://openalex.org/W2981311533","https://openalex.org/W2988683112","https://openalex.org/W2991441573","https://openalex.org/W2997720341","https://openalex.org/W3007533588","https://openalex.org/W3015665516","https://openalex.org/W3035099916","https://openalex.org/W3038067977","https://openalex.org/W3090453402","https://openalex.org/W3118428022","https://openalex.org/W3123616589","https://openalex.org/W3135384040","https://openalex.org/W4205938675","https://openalex.org/W4243494487","https://openalex.org/W4286630461","https://openalex.org/W4311367307","https://openalex.org/W4313469434","https://openalex.org/W4313560056","https://openalex.org/W4317254622","https://openalex.org/W4317436156","https://openalex.org/W4321328665","https://openalex.org/W4323669919","https://openalex.org/W4327937564","https://openalex.org/W4360977772","https://openalex.org/W4378214526","https://openalex.org/W4380988966","https://openalex.org/W4381248302","https://openalex.org/W4387401741","https://openalex.org/W4389829334","https://openalex.org/W4390569759","https://openalex.org/W4396815253","https://openalex.org/W4396928992","https://openalex.org/W4396991373","https://openalex.org/W4399858817","https://openalex.org/W4400764097","https://openalex.org/W4400882851","https://openalex.org/W4401442713","https://openalex.org/W4401456194","https://openalex.org/W4401459825","https://openalex.org/W4409591291","https://openalex.org/W4410033378","https://openalex.org/W4411133703","https://openalex.org/W4411665596","https://openalex.org/W4413493439","https://openalex.org/W4413988602","https://openalex.org/W4414850269","https://openalex.org/W4415264836","https://openalex.org/W4415638801","https://openalex.org/W7128594551","https://openalex.org/W7129724328"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4206598149","https://openalex.org/W7207956285","https://openalex.org/W7220276275","https://openalex.org/W7155101147","https://openalex.org/W4407449880","https://openalex.org/W4311942793","https://openalex.org/W7212021275","https://openalex.org/W4412658847","https://openalex.org/W4401753535","https://openalex.org/W4401753768"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Quantum":[0],"Key":[1,101],"Distribution":[2],"(QKD)":[3],"has":[4],"progressed":[5],"from":[6,46],"a":[7,86,153],"theoretical":[8],"cryptographic":[9],"concept":[10],"to":[11,49,110],"an":[12,74],"emerging":[13],"secure":[14,158],"communication":[15,41,159],"infrastructure":[16],"technology.":[17],"While":[18],"early":[19],"work":[20],"focused":[21],"on":[22],"protocol":[23],"security":[24],"and":[25,37,52,68,91,97,105,126,143],"physical-layer":[26],"feasibility,":[27],"current":[28],"research":[29],"increasingly":[30],"addresses":[31],"scalable":[32],"network":[33],"deployment,":[34],"hardware":[35],"acceleration,":[36],"integration":[38],"with":[39,145],"classical":[40],"systems.":[42,160],"As":[43],"QKD":[44,78,131,151],"expands":[45],"point-to-point":[47],"links":[48],"metropolitan,":[50],"backbone,":[51],"hybrid":[53],"satellite\u2013terrestrial":[54],"networks,":[55,79],"new":[56],"engineering":[57,135],"challenges":[58],"arise":[59],"in":[60,114],"topology":[61],"design,":[62],"entropy":[63],"generation,":[64],"real-time":[65],"key":[66],"distillation,":[67],"multi-vendor":[69],"interoperability.":[70],"This":[71],"survey":[72],"provides":[73],"infrastructure-oriented":[75],"review":[76],"of":[77,88,156],"examining":[80],"architectural":[81],"models,":[82],"quantum":[83],"randomness":[84],"as":[85,152],"root":[87],"trust,":[89],"FPGA":[90],"system-on-chip":[92],"(SoC)":[93],"based":[94],"acceleration":[95],"techniques,":[96],"programmable":[98],"control-plane":[99,139],"integration.":[100],"management":[102],"system":[103],"architectures":[104],"standardized":[106],"interfaces":[107],"are":[108,148],"analyzed":[109],"highlight":[111],"their":[112],"roles":[113],"enabling":[115],"scalable,":[116],"interoperable":[117],"deployments.":[118],"The":[119],"paper":[120],"also":[121],"synthesizes":[122],"major":[123],"standardization":[124],"efforts":[125],"deployment":[127],"initiatives":[128],"shaping":[129],"carrier-grade":[130],"infrastructures.":[132],"Finally,":[133],"open":[134],"challenges,":[136],"including":[137],"scalability,":[138],"integration,":[140],"certification":[141],"harmonization,":[142],"hybridization":[144],"post-quantum":[146],"cryptography,":[147],"identified,":[149],"positioning":[150],"foundational":[154],"component":[155],"next-generation":[157]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-10T11:39:43.021295","created_date":"2026-08-25T00:00:00"}
