{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7197014248","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","title":"Adaptive modulation in 6G terahertz systems via online reinforcement learning\u2013PSO meta-optimization","display_name":"Adaptive modulation in 6G terahertz systems via online reinforcement learning\u2013PSO meta-optimization","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-08-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7197014248","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764510487","display_name":"Engineering Science and Technology an International Journal","issn_l":"2215-0986","issn":["2215-0986"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-b","jufo-2","norway-1","oarl","poland-100"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5010553794","display_name":"Rasha M. Al\u2010Makhlasawy","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3517-767X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3517-767X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210156128","display_name":"Electronics Research Institute","ror":"https://ror.org/0532wcf75","country_code":"EG","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210094263","https://openalex.org/I4210156128"]}],"countries":["EG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rasha M. Al-Makhlasawy","raw_affiliation_strings":["Computers and Systems Department, Electronics Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3517-767X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Computers and Systems Department, Electronics Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210156128"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5133974161","display_name":"Yahya AlQahtani","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I82952536","display_name":"King Khalid University","ror":"https://ror.org/052kwzs30","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I82952536"]}],"countries":["SA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yahya AlQahtani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Artificial Intelligence (CAI), King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia","Department of Informatics and Computer Systems, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Artificial Intelligence (CAI), King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82952536"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Informatics and Computer Systems, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I82952536"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006443274","display_name":"Walid El\u2010Shafai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7509-2120","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7509-2120"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I142024983","display_name":"Prince Sultan University","ror":"https://ror.org/053mqrf26","country_code":"SA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63601056","display_name":"Menoufia University","ror":"https://ror.org/05sjrb944","country_code":"EG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63601056"]}],"countries":["EG","SA"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Walid El-Shafai","raw_affiliation_strings":["Automated Systems and Computing Lab (ASCL), Computer Science Department, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","Department of Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University, Menouf 32952, Egypt"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Automated Systems and Computing Lab (ASCL), Computer Science Department, Prince Sultan University, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electronics and Electrical Communications Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University, Menouf 32952, Egypt","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63601056"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5006443274"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I142024983","https://openalex.org/I63601056"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1800},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"81","issue":null,"first_page":"102488","last_page":"102488"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10936","display_name":"Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling","score":0.5741999745368958,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10936","display_name":"Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling","score":0.5741999745368958,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11458","display_name":"Advanced Wireless Communication Technologies","score":0.11330000311136246,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10125","display_name":"Advanced Wireless Communication Techniques","score":0.08190000057220459,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptive-modulation","display_name":"adaptive modulation","score":0.9940000176429749},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/terahertz-communication","display_name":"terahertz communication","score":0.9399999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/6g-networks","display_name":"6G","score":0.968999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/online-reinforcement-learning","display_name":"online reinforcement learning","score":0.6909999847412109},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/particle-swarm-optimization","display_name":"particle swarm optimization","score":0.7940000295639038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/meta-optimization","display_name":"meta-optimization","score":0.8539999723434448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proximal-policy-optimization","display_name":"proximal policy optimization","score":0.8970000147819519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reward-shaping","display_name":"reward shaping","score":0.8450000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/m-qam","display_name":"M-QAM","score":0.6439999938011169},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/bit-error-rate","display_name":"bit error rate","score":0.7129999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/energy-efficiency","display_name":"energy efficiency","score":0.7570000290870667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dynamic-channel-conditions","display_name":"dynamic channel conditions","score":0.765999972820282}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107816215","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q647887","display_name":"Terahertz radiation","level":2,"score":0.7548999786376953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C123079801","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q750240","display_name":"Modulation (music)","level":2,"score":0.6003000140190125},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67203356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1321905","display_name":"Reinforcement","level":2,"score":0.5278000235557556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24326235","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126095","display_name":"Electronic engineering","level":1,"score":0.4706000089645386},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.46619999408721924},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163258240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25342","display_name":"Power (physics)","level":2,"score":0.4300999939441681},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.3968999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.39590001106262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C120665830","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14620","display_name":"Optics","level":1,"score":0.3736000061035156},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49040817","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q193091","display_name":"Optoelectronics","level":1,"score":0.34470000863075256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C24890656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q82811","display_name":"Acoustics","level":1,"score":0.33719998598098755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11930861","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181417","display_name":"Frequency modulation","level":3,"score":0.31049999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.29919999837875366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.2842999994754791},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104267543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208163","display_name":"Signal processing","level":3,"score":0.26910001039505005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C201905106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183755","display_name":"Amplitude modulation","level":4,"score":0.26840001344680786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C761482","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q118093","display_name":"Transmission (telecommunications)","level":2,"score":0.2597000002861023}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764510487","display_name":"Engineering Science and Technology an International Journal","issn_l":"2215-0986","issn":["2215-0986"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-b","jufo-2","norway-1","oarl","poland-100"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:93dfce0b16d14b83af6f11cf3abc60dd","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/93dfce0b16d14b83af6f11cf3abc60dd","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal, Vol 81, Iss , Pp 102488- (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2026.102488","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764510487","display_name":"Engineering Science and Technology an International Journal","issn_l":"2215-0986","issn":["2215-0986"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-b","jufo-2","norway-1","oarl","poland-100"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5378999710083008,"display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5783502435","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"RGP2/367/46","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324433","funder_display_name":"King Khalid University"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320324433","display_name":"King Khalid University","ror":"https://ror.org/052kwzs30"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1994445384","https://openalex.org/W2306862514","https://openalex.org/W2944844176","https://openalex.org/W3034629262","https://openalex.org/W3035142044","https://openalex.org/W3088210200","https://openalex.org/W3108470074","https://openalex.org/W3155643204","https://openalex.org/W3158727039","https://openalex.org/W3183334199","https://openalex.org/W3189280485","https://openalex.org/W3214275271","https://openalex.org/W4205583724","https://openalex.org/W4295308283","https://openalex.org/W4312620418","https://openalex.org/W4313068113","https://openalex.org/W4394586155","https://openalex.org/W4399090573","https://openalex.org/W4401628830","https://openalex.org/W4403939393","https://openalex.org/W4405599668","https://openalex.org/W4405718155","https://openalex.org/W4406022064","https://openalex.org/W4408087658","https://openalex.org/W4410371049","https://openalex.org/W4413962803","https://openalex.org/W4414229904","https://openalex.org/W4414577521","https://openalex.org/W7162464560","https://openalex.org/W7163045576"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7220897758","https://openalex.org/W7127566377","https://openalex.org/W4417509875","https://openalex.org/W4413553575","https://openalex.org/W7153177069","https://openalex.org/W7153021273","https://openalex.org/W7171783593","https://openalex.org/W7203899474","https://openalex.org/W4410341662","https://openalex.org/W4416828445"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,80,158,179],"rapid":[1],"evolution":[2],"of":[3,17,56,154,210,240],"sixth-generation":[4],"(6G)":[5],"wireless":[6],"systems":[7],"has":[8],"intensified":[9],"the":[10,46,120,236,241,245],"need":[11],"for":[12,72,255],"adaptive":[13,74,177],"modulation":[14,75,99],"strategies":[15],"capable":[16],"operating":[18],"reliably":[19],"and":[20,31,53,101,112,134,174,194,213,231,238],"efficiently":[21],"in":[22,38,76,260],"highly":[23],"dynamic":[24,226],"terahertz":[25],"(THz)":[26],"communication":[27,78,264],"environments.":[28],"Conventional":[29],"threshold-based":[30,176],"static":[32],"optimization":[33],"methods":[34],"are":[35,139],"often":[36],"inadequate":[37],"such":[39],"settings":[40],"because":[41],"they":[42],"cannot":[43],"fully":[44],"capture":[45],"strong":[47],"nonlinearity,":[48],"severe":[49],"attenuation,":[50],"molecular":[51],"absorption,":[52],"time-varying":[54],"behaviour":[55],"THz":[57,77,147,263],"channels.":[58],"To":[59],"address":[60],"these":[61],"challenges,":[62],"this":[63],"paper":[64],"proposes":[65],"an":[66,207,252],"online":[67,247],"meta-optimized":[68],"reinforcement":[69],"learning":[70,114,121,211],"framework":[71,84,160,250],"link-level":[73,187,257],"systems.":[79,265],"proposed":[81,159,242,246],"Hybrid":[82,248],"RL\u2013PSO":[83,249],"integrates":[85],"Proximal":[86],"Policy":[87],"Optimization":[88,93],"(PPO)":[89],"with":[90],"Particle":[91],"Swarm":[92],"(PSO),":[94],"where":[95],"PPO":[96],"performs":[97],"state-aware":[98],"selection":[100],"PSO":[102],"is":[103,161,203],"periodically":[104],"invoked":[105],"during":[106],"training":[107],"to":[108,123,126],"refine":[109],"reward-shaping":[110],"coefficients":[111],"selected":[113],"hyperparameters.":[115],"This":[116],"closed-loop":[117],"interaction":[118],"enables":[119],"process":[122],"remain":[124],"responsive":[125],"evolving":[127],"channel":[128,148,227],"conditions":[129],"while":[130],"improving":[131],"policy-update":[132],"stability":[133,196],"modulation-decision":[135],"quality.":[136],"Comprehensive":[137],"simulations":[138],"conducted":[140],"using":[141],"M-QAM":[142],"transmission":[143],"over":[144],"a":[145,151,218],"physics-based":[146],"model":[149],"across":[150],"wide":[152],"range":[153],"signal-to-noise":[155],"ratio":[156],"conditions.":[157,200],"evaluated":[162],"against":[163],"Deep":[164],"Q-Network,":[165],"Advantage":[166],"Actor\u2013Critic,":[167],"standalone":[168],"PPO,":[169],"PSO-only":[170],"optimization,":[171,173],"GA-based":[172],"conventional":[175],"modulation.":[178],"results":[180],"demonstrate":[181,235],"improved":[182],"uncoded":[183],"bit":[184],"error":[185],"rate,":[186],"spectral":[188],"efficiency,":[189,191],"energy":[190],"throughput\u2013reliability":[192],"balance,":[193],"convergence":[195,214],"under":[197,225],"common":[198],"evaluation":[199],"Average":[201],"reward":[202],"used":[204],"only":[205],"as":[206,217],"internal":[208],"indicator":[209],"progression":[212],"rather":[215],"than":[216],"direct":[219],"cross-method":[220],"performance":[221],"measure.":[222],"Additional":[223],"evaluations":[224],"variations,":[228],"multi-user":[229],"operation,":[230],"parameter":[232],"perturbations":[233],"further":[234],"robustness":[237],"scalability":[239],"approach.":[243],"Overall,":[244],"provides":[251],"effective":[253],"solution":[254],"intelligent":[256],"physical-layer":[258],"adaptation":[259],"future":[261],"6G":[262]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2026-08-07T00:00:00"}
