{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7171554635","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","title":"Topology-Safe Air-to-Air Interception via \u201cGo\u201d-Inspired Metrics and Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning","display_name":"Topology-Safe Air-to-Air Interception via \u201cGo\u201d-Inspired Metrics and Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-07-28","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7171554635","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/aerospace13080680","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/13/8/680/pdf?version=1785250761","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210169245","display_name":"Aerospace","issn_l":"2226-4310","issn":["2226-4310"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Aerospace","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/13/8/680/pdf?version=1785250761","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5139712577","display_name":"Kai Ye","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kai Ye","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5134597686","display_name":"Zihan Wu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6437-5482","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0004-6437-5482"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zihan Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5143829177","display_name":"Yifei Wu","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Yifei Wu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5143825580","display_name":"Hao Qian","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Hao Qian","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5143805760","display_name":"Shaowen Woo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9441-5496","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9441-5496"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shaowen Woo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-9441-5496","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5073126434","display_name":"Sutthiphong Spot Srigrarom","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0239-183X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0239-183X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sutthiphong Srigrarom","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0239-183X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5056015724","display_name":"Boo Cheong Khoo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4710-4598","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4710-4598"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165932596","display_name":"National University of Singapore","ror":"https://ror.org/01tgyzw49","country_code":"SG","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}],"countries":["SG"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Boo Cheong Khoo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4710-4598","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Mechanical Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Dr 1, Singapore 117575, Singapore","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5073126434","https://openalex.org/A5139712577"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I165932596"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2896},"apc_paid":{"value":2400,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2896},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.53999659,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"8","first_page":"680","last_page":"680"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12158","display_name":"Guidance and Control Systems","score":0.9682999849319458,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12158","display_name":"Guidance and Control Systems","score":0.9682999849319458,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10462","display_name":"Reinforcement Learning in Robotics","score":0.005400000140070915,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13371","display_name":"Military Defense Systems Analysis","score":0.003800000064074993,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multi-agent-reinforcement-learning","display_name":"multi-agent reinforcement learning","score":0.703000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/centralized-training-with-decentralized-execution","display_name":"centralized training decentralized execution","score":0.6660000085830688},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cooperative-formation-control","display_name":"cooperative formation control","score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/curriculum-learning","display_name":"curriculum learning","score":0.3149999976158142}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5648999810218811},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61270487","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q476843","display_name":"Interception","level":2,"score":0.5109999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C173801870","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q201413","display_name":"Heuristic","level":2,"score":0.5005000233650208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4966000020503998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158154518","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310970","display_name":"Relevance (law)","level":2,"score":0.4797999858856201},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.4523000121116638},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C14185376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30232","display_name":"Agile software development","level":2,"score":0.4453999996185303},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780980858","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110022","display_name":"Dual (grammatical number)","level":2,"score":0.4147000014781952},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.39100000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779227376","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6505497","display_name":"Layer (electronics)","level":2,"score":0.36489999294281006},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.33739998936653137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.33559998869895935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79403827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3988","display_name":"Real-time computing","level":1,"score":0.33550000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77618280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1155772","display_name":"Scheme (mathematics)","level":2,"score":0.33480000495910645},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89611455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804646","display_name":"Mechanism (biology)","level":2,"score":0.32249999046325684},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47446073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165890","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","level":3,"score":0.2992999851703644},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.2971000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18762648","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42213","display_name":"Work (physics)","level":2,"score":0.28349998593330383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778857364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q974850","display_name":"Missile","level":2,"score":0.27219998836517334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776760102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5139990","display_name":"Code (set theory)","level":3,"score":0.26249998807907104},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39920170","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q693083","display_name":"Soundness","level":2,"score":0.2599000036716461},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48677424","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6888088","display_name":"Mode (computer interface)","level":2,"score":0.25540000200271606}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/aerospace13080680","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/13/8/680/pdf?version=1785250761","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210169245","display_name":"Aerospace","issn_l":"2226-4310","issn":["2226-4310"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Aerospace","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:f0246bfb8f3349f48633f906efb2dfc2","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/f0246bfb8f3349f48633f906efb2dfc2","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Aerospace, Vol 13, Iss 8, p 680 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/aerospace13080680","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13080680","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2226-4310/13/8/680/pdf?version=1785250761","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210169245","display_name":"Aerospace","issn_l":"2226-4310","issn":["2226-4310"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Aerospace","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7171554635.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7171554635.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":14,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W40650588","https://openalex.org/W1608481154","https://openalex.org/W1635192251","https://openalex.org/W2056277219","https://openalex.org/W2107941094","https://openalex.org/W2111638077","https://openalex.org/W2257979135","https://openalex.org/W2296073425","https://openalex.org/W2560504659","https://openalex.org/W2567355071","https://openalex.org/W2752463559","https://openalex.org/W4234378110","https://openalex.org/W4237006237","https://openalex.org/W4242605563"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Airspace":[0],"defense":[1],"against":[2,108],"agile":[3],"UAVs":[4],"requires":[5],"multiple":[6],"defenders":[7],"to":[8,38,70,121],"cooperatively":[9],"encircle":[10],"evasive":[11],"intruders,":[12],"but":[13],"existing":[14],"formation":[15],"controllers":[16],"cannot":[17,68],"certify":[18],"when":[19],"an":[20],"intruder":[21],"is":[22],"truly":[23],"trapped.":[24],"This":[25],"paper":[26],"introduces":[27],"a":[28,43,51,79,101,109],"\u201cGo\u201d-inspired":[29],"framework":[30],"that":[31,63],"maps":[32],"the":[33,66,113],"board-game":[34],"concept":[35],"of":[36],"liberties":[37],"continuous-space":[39],"escape":[40],"corridors,":[41],"yielding":[42],"Benson-inspired":[44],"dual":[45],"capture":[46,85,103],"criterion:":[47],"total":[48],"liberty":[49,119],"below":[50],"threshold":[52],"AND":[53],"sufficient":[54],"directions":[55,125],"blocked.":[56,126],"A":[57],"directional":[58],"relevance":[59],"gating":[60],"mechanism":[61],"enforces":[62],"interceptors":[64,99],"behind":[65],"evader":[67,111,118],"contribute":[69],"blocking,":[71],"naturally":[72],"requiring":[73],"multi-agent":[74],"cooperation.":[75],"The":[76],"metrics":[77],"feed":[78],"MAPPO-based":[80],"learning":[81],"layer":[82],"with":[83,94,117],"curriculum-scheduled":[84],"thresholds":[86],"under":[87,105,112],"centralized":[88],"training/decentralized":[89],"execution.":[90],"In":[91],"3-vs.-1":[92],"simulations":[93],"five":[95],"independent":[96],"seeds,":[97],"trained":[98],"achieve":[100],"52.9\u00b13.7%":[102],"rate":[104],"deterministic":[106],"evaluation":[107],"heuristic":[110],"strict":[114],"multi-directional":[115],"criterion,":[116],"reduced":[120],"0.36":[122],"and":[123],"5.1/8":[124]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-10-14T16:39:01.820549","created_date":"2026-07-29T00:00:00"}