{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7140117153","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","title":"A Multi-Source Feedback-Driven Framework for Generating WAF Test Cases","display_name":"A Multi-Source Feedback-Driven Framework for Generating WAF Test Cases","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-03-20","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7140117153","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18030167","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/3/167/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/3/167/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Pengcheng Lu","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9030-2992","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9030-2992"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pengcheng Lu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-9030-2992","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100681428","display_name":"Xiaofeng Zhong","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3642-7578","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3642-7578"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Xiaofeng Zhong","raw_affiliation_strings":["Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125253131","display_name":"Wenbo Xu","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenbo Xu","raw_affiliation_strings":["Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027199521","display_name":"Yongjie Wang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3367-5509","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3367-5509"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I170215575","display_name":"National University of Defense Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/05d2yfz11","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}],"countries":["CN"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Yongjie Wang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3367-5509","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Cyberspace Security Situation Awareness and Evaluation, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":[]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"College of Electronic Engineering, National University of Defense Technology, Hefei 230037, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5027199521"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I170215575"],"apc_list":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1930},"apc_paid":{"value":1600,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1930},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.18211575,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"3","first_page":"167","last_page":"167"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12479","display_name":"Web Application Security Vulnerabilities","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12479","display_name":"Web Application Security Vulnerabilities","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10400","display_name":"Network Security and Intrusion Detection","score":0.005900000222027302,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10743","display_name":"Software Testing and Debugging Techniques","score":0.0032999999821186066,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/web-application-firewall","display_name":"web application firewall","score":0.9860000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automatic-test-generation","display_name":"automated test generation","score":0.7129999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sparse-rewards","display_name":"sparse rewards","score":0.6759999990463257}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.9056000113487244},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97541855","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830687","display_name":"Reinforcement learning","level":2,"score":0.6728000044822693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5842999815940857},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.5719000101089478},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.5120999813079834},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781067378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17027399","display_name":"Interpretability","level":2,"score":0.4884999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110332635","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629498","display_name":"Genetic programming","level":2,"score":0.4180999994277954},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C89611455","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6804646","display_name":"Mechanism (biology)","level":2,"score":0.41359999775886536},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779304628","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3503480","display_name":"Face (sociological concept)","level":2,"score":0.37860000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779639559","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7661178","display_name":"Symbolic execution","level":3,"score":0.3154999911785126},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C739882","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3560506","display_name":"Anomaly detection","level":2,"score":0.31349998712539673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C31510193","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1192553","display_name":"Facial recognition system","level":3,"score":0.27790001034736633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8880873","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187787","display_name":"Genetic algorithm","level":2,"score":0.27379998564720154},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C193524817","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q386780","display_name":"Association rule learning","level":2,"score":0.2721000015735626},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2164484","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5170150","display_name":"Core (optical fiber)","level":2,"score":0.2660999894142151},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124101348","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172491","display_name":"Data mining","level":1,"score":0.2535000145435333}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18030167","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/3/167/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:6b43d20bd3d94def9d14bf5d454750fc","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/6b43d20bd3d94def9d14bf5d454750fc","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet, Vol 18, Iss 3, p 167 (2026)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/fi18030167","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/fi18030167","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1999-5903/18/3/167/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S34838331","display_name":"Future Internet","issn_l":"1999-5903","issn":["1999-5903"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Future Internet","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140117153.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W7140117153.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":18,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1962083226","https://openalex.org/W2054801208","https://openalex.org/W2072607050","https://openalex.org/W2103496339","https://openalex.org/W2107466240","https://openalex.org/W2810065972","https://openalex.org/W2993498479","https://openalex.org/W3100117936","https://openalex.org/W3180874179","https://openalex.org/W4214813133","https://openalex.org/W4321484315","https://openalex.org/W4323338673","https://openalex.org/W4386917822","https://openalex.org/W4387068228","https://openalex.org/W4388115665","https://openalex.org/W4390659426","https://openalex.org/W4402264565","https://openalex.org/W4403577333"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Web":[0],"application":[1],"firewalls":[2],"(WAFs)":[3],"are":[4,23],"critical":[5],"defenses":[6],"against":[7],"persistent":[8],"threats":[9],"to":[10,113],"web":[11],"applications,":[12],"yet":[13],"their":[14],"security":[15],"evaluation":[16],"remains":[17],"challenging.":[18],"Traditional":[19],"manual":[20],"testing":[21,140],"methods":[22],"often":[24],"inefficient":[25],"and":[26,62,71,108,141,148],"resource-intensive,":[27],"while":[28],"existing":[29],"reinforcement":[30],"learning":[31,76],"(RL)-based":[32],"automated":[33,138],"approaches":[34],"face":[35],"two":[36],"key":[37],"limitations:":[38],"(1)":[39],"attackers":[40],"cannot":[41],"perceive":[42],"opaque":[43],"WAF":[44,93,139],"rule":[45,90,146],"logic;":[46],"(2)":[47],"boolean":[48],"feedback":[49],"from":[50],"WAFs":[51],"results":[52],"in":[53,59],"sparse/delayed":[54],"rewards\u2014sparse":[55],"rewards":[56,64],"trap":[57],"agents":[58],"blind":[60],"exploration,":[61],"delayed":[63],"hinder":[65],"the":[66,121],"association":[67],"between":[68],"early":[69],"actions":[70],"final":[72],"outcomes,":[73],"adversely":[74],"affecting":[75],"efficiency.":[77],"To":[78],"address":[79],"those":[80],"challenges,":[81],"we":[82],"propose":[83],"Ouroboros\u2014a":[84],"framework":[85,122],"integrating":[86],"genetic":[87],"algorithm-based":[88],"symbolic":[89],"reconstruction":[91],"(translating":[92],"rules":[94],"into":[95],"interpretable":[96],"RNNs":[97],"for":[98,137,144],"fine-grained":[99],"confidence":[100],"scoring),":[101],"timing":[102],"side-channel":[103],"analysis":[104],"(evaluating":[105],"rule-matching":[106],"depth),":[107],"a":[109],"multi-tiered":[110],"reward":[111],"mechanism":[112],"enable":[114],"self-evolving":[115],"RL":[116],"testing.":[117],"Experiments":[118],"show":[119],"that":[120],"reaches":[123],"89.2%":[124],"bypass":[125],"success":[126],"rate":[127],"on":[128],"signature-based":[129],"WAFs.":[130],"This":[131],"paper":[132],"presents":[133],"an":[134],"efficient":[135],"solution":[136],"delivers":[142],"insights":[143],"optimizing":[145],"logic":[147],"anomaly":[149],"detection":[150],"mechanisms.":[151]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-09-29T14:09:16.559479","created_date":"2026-03-24T00:00:00"}
