{"id":"https://openalex.org/W7127911038","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","title":"Otters, but not apes, prepare for mutually exclusive possibilities","display_name":"Otters, but not apes, prepare for mutually exclusive possibilities","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-02-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W7127911038","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402567","display_name":"bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2750212522","host_organization_name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2750212522"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"bioRxiv","raw_type":"posted-content"},"volume":null,"type":"preprint","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5085061293","display_name":"Sara Torres Ortiz","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1065-9194","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1065-9194"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177969490","display_name":"University of Southern Denmark","ror":"https://ror.org/03yrrjy16","country_code":"DK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}],"countries":["DK"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Sara Torres Ortiz","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1065-9194","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125210665","display_name":"Kasper Fjorside","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177969490","display_name":"University of Southern Denmark","ror":"https://ror.org/03yrrjy16","country_code":"DK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}],"countries":["DK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Kasper Fjorside","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5125134270","display_name":"Paula Fuentes Raigal","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Paula Fuentes Raigal","raw_affiliation_strings":["None;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"None;","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083848288","display_name":"Roc\u00edo Canales","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5065-0511","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0003-5065-0511"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4405283558","display_name":"Mundomar","ror":"https://ror.org/01wc74d49","country_code":"ES","type":"archive","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4405283558"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Rocio Canales","raw_affiliation_strings":["Veterinary Department, Mundomar, Carrer Serra Gelada, s/n, 03503 Benidorm, Alicante, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Veterinary Department, Mundomar, Carrer Serra Gelada, s/n, 03503 Benidorm, Alicante, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4405283558"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5054333725","display_name":"Magnus Wahlberg","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8239-5485","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8239-5485"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I177969490","display_name":"University of Southern Denmark","ror":"https://ror.org/03yrrjy16","country_code":"DK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}],"countries":["DK"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Magnus Wahlberg","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Marine Biological Research Center, University of Southern Denmark, Hindsholmvej 11, 5300 Kerteminde, Denmark","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5085061293"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I177969490"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10699","display_name":"Primate Behavior and Ecology","score":0.9053000211715698,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1105","display_name":"Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10699","display_name":"Primate Behavior and Ecology","score":0.9053000211715698,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1105","display_name":"Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10656","display_name":"Child and Animal Learning Development","score":0.08070000261068344,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10838","display_name":"Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies","score":0.003000000026077032,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1103","display_name":"Animal Science and Zoology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/11","display_name":"Agricultural and Biological Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/asian-small-clawed-otter","display_name":"Asian small-clawed otter","score":0.8579999804496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eurasian-otter","display_name":"Lutra lutra","score":0.9990000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/chimpanzees","display_name":"chimpanzees","score":0.8679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/payoff-structure","display_name":"payoff structure","score":0.5130000114440918},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/strategy-maintenance","display_name":"strategy maintenance","score":0.5040000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/executive-function","display_name":"executive function","score":0.7350000143051147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/animal-cognition","display_name":"animal cognition","score":0.45399999618530273}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165287380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2916569","display_name":"Foraging","level":2,"score":0.6255000233650208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780451532","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759676","display_name":"Task (project management)","level":2,"score":0.5494999885559082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169900460","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2200417","display_name":"Cognition","level":2,"score":0.5073999762535095},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776931103","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q200184","display_name":"Otter","level":2,"score":0.498199999332428},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4964999854564667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.362199991941452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780980858","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110022","display_name":"Dual (grammatical number)","level":2,"score":0.3555000126361847},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144745244","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4927286","display_name":"Blocking (statistics)","level":2,"score":0.34700000286102295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.34619998931884766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177321328","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13580479","display_name":"Goldilocks principle","level":2,"score":0.3319000005722046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.31790000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22171661","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1074380","display_name":"Stochastic game","level":2,"score":0.3109000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C79416737","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2305519","display_name":"Social learning","level":2,"score":0.2840000092983246},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C106306483","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q183984","display_name":"Futures contract","level":2,"score":0.2818000018596649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18903297","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7150","display_name":"Ecology","level":1,"score":0.2773999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41690226","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q499210","display_name":"Animal cognition","level":3,"score":0.26989999413490295},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117376503","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q751093","display_name":"Reproductive success","level":3,"score":0.25360000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.25360000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86658582","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1432778","display_name":"Social cognition","level":3,"score":0.2502000033855438}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","doi":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.64898/2026.02.03.703448","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402567","display_name":"bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2750212522","host_organization_name":"Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2750212522"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"bioRxiv","raw_type":"posted-content"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":20,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1610127981","https://openalex.org/W2010074622","https://openalex.org/W2022526857","https://openalex.org/W2100359507","https://openalex.org/W2159887989","https://openalex.org/W2172834401","https://openalex.org/W2475307512","https://openalex.org/W2487592690","https://openalex.org/W2625168933","https://openalex.org/W2626928989","https://openalex.org/W2744100293","https://openalex.org/W2892439144","https://openalex.org/W3024815830","https://openalex.org/W3188224904","https://openalex.org/W4205194619","https://openalex.org/W4242289937","https://openalex.org/W4296139646","https://openalex.org/W4399576166","https://openalex.org/W4399592283","https://openalex.org/W4416133269"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2908910252","https://openalex.org/W2101548886","https://openalex.org/W7154579512","https://openalex.org/W2741725021","https://openalex.org/W7157146131","https://openalex.org/W2062155546","https://openalex.org/W7111562662","https://openalex.org/W4381470715","https://openalex.org/W2745556955","https://openalex.org/W2118437317"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"The":[1],"ability":[2],"to":[3,32,36,106,123,167,181],"prepare":[4],"for":[5],"mutually":[6],"exclusive":[7],"outcomes":[8],"is":[9,31,163],"often":[10,87],"considered":[11],"uniquely":[12],"human.":[13],"Solving":[14],"such":[15,151],"problems":[16],"requires":[17],"anticipating":[18],"alternative":[19],"futures":[20],"before":[21],"acting.":[22],"In":[23],"the":[24,28,102,137,140,144,168,173],"classic":[25],"forked-tube":[26],"task,":[27],"optimal":[29],"strategy":[30,103],"block":[33],"both":[34,83,161],"exits":[35,84,162],"secure":[37],"a":[38],"reward:":[39],"children":[40,51],"under":[41],"four":[42],"years":[43],"and":[44,66,74,128,194],"great":[45],"apes":[46],"typically":[47],"fail,":[48],"whereas":[49],"older":[50],"succeed.":[52],"Using":[53],"this":[54],"paradigm,":[55],"we":[56],"tested":[57],"three":[58],"Asian":[59],"small-clawed":[60],"otters":[61],"(":[62,70],"Aonyx":[63],"cinereus":[64],")":[65,73],"one":[67],"Eurasian":[68],"otter":[69,124],"Lutra":[71],"lutra":[72],"compared":[75],"their":[76,95],"performance":[77],"with":[78,90,118],"chimpanzee":[79],"data.":[80],"Otters":[81],"covered":[82],"significantly":[85],"more":[86],"than":[88,147,198],"chimpanzees,":[89],"all":[91],"individuals":[92,126],"succeeding":[93],"within":[94],"first":[96],"trials.":[97],"Initial":[98],"inconsistency":[99],"in":[100,179],"maintaining":[101],"appeared":[104],"linked":[105],"anatomical":[107],"constraints":[108],"that":[109,136,159,187],"limited":[110],"reward":[111],"success.":[112],"When":[113],"retested":[114],"two":[115],"months":[116],"later":[117],"an":[119,164],"apparatus":[120],"better":[121],"suited":[122],"morphology,":[125],"adopted":[127],"maintained":[129],"dual":[130],"coverage":[131],"as":[132,152],"success":[133],"increased,":[134],"indicating":[135],"behavior":[138],"tracked":[139],"payoff":[141],"structure":[142],"of":[143],"task":[145],"rather":[146,197],"reflecting":[148],"low-level":[149],"mechanisms":[150],"trial-and-error":[153],"learning.":[154],"Together,":[155],"these":[156],"findings":[157],"indicate":[158],"blocking":[160],"adaptive":[165],"response":[166,180],"task\u2019s":[169],"causal":[170],"structure,":[171],"supporting":[172],"ecological":[174,182],"intelligence":[175],"hypothesis:":[176],"cognition":[177],"evolves":[178],"demands,":[183],"particularly":[184],"foraging":[185],"challenges":[186],"place":[188],"recurrent":[189],"pressures":[190],"on":[191],"memory,":[192],"decision-making,":[193],"executive":[195],"control,":[196],"being":[199],"driven":[200],"solely":[201],"by":[202],"social":[203],"complexity.":[204]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-11-09T13:22:03.289127","created_date":"2026-02-07T00:00:00"}