{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4417123647","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","title":"Assessing the Relationship Between the Implementation of Compulsory Education Laws and Girls\u2019 School Attendance in Twenty-Seven Countries","display_name":"Assessing the Relationship Between the Implementation of Compulsory Education Laws and Girls\u2019 School Attendance in Twenty-Seven Countries","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-12-08","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4417123647","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/socsci14120703","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/14/12/703/pdf?version=1765206601","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210168464","display_name":"Social Sciences","issn_l":"2076-0760","issn":["2076-0760"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Social Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/14/12/703/pdf?version=1765206601","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5055281596","display_name":"Bijetri Bose","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6239-7566","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6239-7566"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Bijetri Bose","raw_affiliation_strings":["WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5106854549","display_name":"Alfredo Hidalgo-San Mart\u00edn","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0545-6605","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0003-0545-6605"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Alfredo Martin","raw_affiliation_strings":["WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032332329","display_name":"Amy Raub","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5207-0807","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5207-0807"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Amy Raub","raw_affiliation_strings":["WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5207-0807","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5021326811","display_name":"Jody S. Heymann","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0008-4198","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0008-4198"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Jody Heymann","raw_affiliation_strings":["WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"WORLD Policy Analysis Center, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5032332329"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2172},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2172},"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":0,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.30419413,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"14","issue":"12","first_page":"703","last_page":"703"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11556","display_name":"Poverty, Education, and Child Welfare","score":0.7505000233650208,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11556","display_name":"Poverty, Education, and Child Welfare","score":0.7505000233650208,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13040","display_name":"Gender, Education, and Development Issues","score":0.15060000121593475,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12204","display_name":"African Education and Politics","score":0.026900000870227814,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/compulsory-education","display_name":"compulsory education","score":0.7149999737739563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/free-tuition","display_name":"tuition-free education","score":0.8050000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gender-parity-in-education","display_name":"gender parity in education","score":0.9509999752044678},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/out-of-school-children","display_name":"out-of-school children","score":0.9020000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/education-policy-implementation","display_name":"education policy implementation","score":0.8320000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/urban-rural-differences","display_name":"urban-rural differences","score":0.7699999809265137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/household-income-and-education","display_name":"household income and education","score":0.6779999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/education-for-all","display_name":"education for all","score":0.8080000281333923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sdg-4","display_name":"Sustainable Development Goal 4","score":0.8820000290870667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sub-saharan-africa","display_name":"sub-Saharan Africa","score":0.8460000157356262}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779791860","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q511009","display_name":"Compulsory education","level":2,"score":0.8611000180244446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778173179","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25339289","display_name":"Attendance","level":2,"score":0.6395999789237976},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50522688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189833","display_name":"Economic growth","level":1,"score":0.45820000767707825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10050518","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q975085","display_name":"Primary education","level":2,"score":0.4449000060558319},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C83864248","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177323","display_name":"Developing country","level":2,"score":0.43380001187324524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C129047720","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175185","display_name":"Rural area","level":2,"score":0.4320000112056732},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.3878999948501587},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777464741","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192571","display_name":"Child labour","level":3,"score":0.3353999853134155},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3020672099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q857354","display_name":"Longitudinal data","level":2,"score":0.334199994802475},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777895361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1758614","display_name":"Longitudinal study","level":2,"score":0.3278999924659729},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45355965","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1643441","display_name":"Socioeconomics","level":1,"score":0.32280001044273376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110888244","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q187588","display_name":"Social class","level":2,"score":0.32170000672340393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3091000020503998},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781022233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4127424","display_name":"Universal Primary Education","level":3,"score":0.3089999854564667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984063382","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1080794","display_name":"School education","level":2,"score":0.30869999527931213},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C160050368","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132453","display_name":"Developed country","level":3,"score":0.3018999993801117},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189326681","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10294","display_name":"Poverty","level":2,"score":0.29739999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39853841","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161078","display_name":"Urbanization","level":2,"score":0.27149999141693115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.2687999904155731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777212361","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5127848","display_name":"Class (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.2632000148296356},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C67141207","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q452348","display_name":"Education policy","level":3,"score":0.26179999113082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C147077947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1515895","display_name":"Socioeconomic status","level":3,"score":0.2603999972343445},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4249254","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3044431","display_name":"Demographic economics","level":1,"score":0.2596000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.25699999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992358569","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q69370","display_name":"Right to education","level":3,"score":0.25529998540878296}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/socsci14120703","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/14/12/703/pdf?version=1765206601","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210168464","display_name":"Social Sciences","issn_l":"2076-0760","issn":["2076-0760"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Social Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:ed753421f1524c9ea36ed2a66649d061","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/ed753421f1524c9ea36ed2a66649d061","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Social Sciences, Vol 14, Iss 12, p 703 (2025)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/socsci14120703","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14120703","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/14/12/703/pdf?version=1765206601","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210168464","display_name":"Social Sciences","issn_l":"2076-0760","issn":["2076-0760"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Social Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/5","score":1.0,"display_name":"Gender equality"},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","score":1.0,"display_name":"Reduced inequalities"},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","score":0.9235000014305115,"display_name":"Quality education"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/study-designs/observational-study","display_name":"Observational Study"}],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3554654162","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"2023-02155-GRA","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320307873","funder_display_name":"William and Flora Hewlett Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320307873","display_name":"William and Flora Hewlett Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/04hd1y677"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4417123647.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4417123647.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":27,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1168380530","https://openalex.org/W2006911458","https://openalex.org/W2071472569","https://openalex.org/W2089707541","https://openalex.org/W2116185897","https://openalex.org/W2126638451","https://openalex.org/W2332016301","https://openalex.org/W2571165333","https://openalex.org/W2582866730","https://openalex.org/W2769528288","https://openalex.org/W2792515639","https://openalex.org/W2911056353","https://openalex.org/W2912617224","https://openalex.org/W2915550449","https://openalex.org/W2939819046","https://openalex.org/W3008800225","https://openalex.org/W3011535806","https://openalex.org/W3016922046","https://openalex.org/W3019565797","https://openalex.org/W3114142758","https://openalex.org/W3165570548","https://openalex.org/W3166931031","https://openalex.org/W4319083561","https://openalex.org/W4401782637","https://openalex.org/W4406792622","https://openalex.org/W4411683115","https://openalex.org/W4414067710"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Achieving":[0],"education":[1,8,83,91],"for":[2,174],"all":[3],"and":[4,26,48,59,85,144,178,191],"gender":[5,99],"parity":[6,100],"in":[7,37,73,101,165,188,192],"is":[9,95,186],"central":[10],"to":[11,97,125,136,153],"Sustainable":[12],"Development":[13],"Goal":[14],"4.":[15],"However,":[16],"there":[17],"are":[18,42],"still":[19],"an":[20],"estimated":[21],"78":[22],"million":[23,28],"primary-school-age":[24],"children":[25,35],"64":[27],"lower-secondary-school-age":[29],"children.":[30],"Half":[31],"of":[32,44,105,139,156],"these":[33],"out-of-school":[34],"live":[36],"sub-Saharan":[38],"Africa.":[39],"Disproportionately,":[40],"girls":[41,115,132,143,145,159,175],"out":[43,138,155],"school,":[45],"particularly":[46],"rural":[47,189],"low-income":[49],"girls.":[50],"Building":[51],"longitudinal":[52],"policy":[53],"data":[54,61],"from":[55,65,146,160],"51":[56],"African":[57,67],"countries":[58,76,108,166],"using":[60],"on":[62],"school":[63,71,140,157],"attendance":[64,72],"35":[66],"countries,":[68],"we":[69],"assess":[70],"the":[74,106,147,161,172],"27":[75,107],"that":[77,89],"had":[78],"made":[79],"at":[80],"least":[81],"primary":[82],"compulsory":[84,111],"tuition-free.":[86],"We":[87],"find":[88],"once":[90],"becomes":[92],"compulsory,":[93],"it":[94],"possible":[96],"achieve":[98],"education.":[102],"In":[103],"20":[104],"studied":[109],"with":[110],"tuition-free":[112],"education,":[113],"primary-school-aged":[114],"were":[116,133,150,181],"as":[117,128],"likely":[118,122,135,152],"or":[119],"slightly":[120],"more":[121,134,151],"than":[123,141,158],"boys":[124],"be":[126,137,154],"reported":[127],"attending":[129],"school.":[130],"Rural":[131],"urban":[142],"poorest":[148],"households":[149],"richest":[162],"households.":[163],"Importantly,":[164],"where":[167],"overall":[168],"implementation":[169,185],"was":[170],"high,":[171],"gaps":[173],"across":[176],"location":[177],"social":[179],"class":[180],"small,":[182],"indicating":[183],"strong":[184],"feasible":[187],"areas":[190],"poorer":[193],"neighborhoods.":[194]},"counts_by_year":[],"updated_date":"2026-09-27T08:07:27.782135","created_date":"2025-12-08T00:00:00"}