{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4415445809","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","title":"When AI Is Fooled: Hidden Risks in LLM-Assisted Grading","display_name":"When AI Is Fooled: Hidden Risks in LLM-Assisted Grading","publication_year":2025,"publication_date":"2025-10-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4415445809","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/educsci15111419","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/15/11/1419/pdf?version=1761127064","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738008561","display_name":"Education Sciences","issn_l":"2227-7102","issn":["2227-7102"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/15/11/1419/pdf?version=1761127064","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052630971","display_name":"Alfredo Milani","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4534-1805","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4534-1805"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I42775652","display_name":"Link Campus University","ror":"https://ror.org/035mh1293","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I42775652"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Alfredo Milani","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Human Sciences, Link Campus University, Via del Casale di San Pio V, 44, 00165 Rome, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4534-1805","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Human Sciences, Link Campus University, Via del Casale di San Pio V, 44, 00165 Rome, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I42775652"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5022438396","display_name":"Valentina Franzoni","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2972-7188","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2972-7188"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I141568987","display_name":"Hong Kong Baptist University","ror":"https://ror.org/0145fw131","country_code":"HK","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I141568987"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I27483092","display_name":"University of Perugia","ror":"https://ror.org/00x27da85","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I27483092"]}],"countries":["HK","IT"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Valentina Franzoni","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China","Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2972-7188","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141568987"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27483092"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006594036","display_name":"Emanuele Florindi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5420-0326","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5420-0326"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I122346577","display_name":"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia","ror":"https://ror.org/02d4c4y02","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I122346577"]}],"countries":["IT"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emanuele Florindi","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, 41100 Modena, Italy"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-5420-0326","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Modena-Reggio Emilia, 41100 Modena, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I122346577"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5077494821","display_name":"Assel Omarbekova","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9272-8829","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9272-8829"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10232997","display_name":"L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/0242cby63","country_code":"KZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}],"countries":["KZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Assel Omarbekova","raw_affiliation_strings":["Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9272-8829","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5023021285","display_name":"Gulmira Bekmanova","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8554-7627","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8554-7627"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10232997","display_name":"L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/0242cby63","country_code":"KZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}],"countries":["KZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gulmira Bekmanova","raw_affiliation_strings":["Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8554-7627","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5062889471","display_name":"Banu Yergesh","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8967-2625","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8967-2625"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I10232997","display_name":"L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University","ror":"https://ror.org/0242cby63","country_code":"KZ","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}],"countries":["KZ"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Banu Yergesh","raw_affiliation_strings":["Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8967-2625","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Digital Development and Distance Learning Department, Eurasian National University of Astana, Astana 010008, Kazakhstan","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I10232997"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5022438396","https://openalex.org/A5052630971"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I141568987","https://openalex.org/I27483092","https://openalex.org/I42775652"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2172},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2172},"fwci":4.5774,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":11,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.95435921,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"15","issue":"11","first_page":"1419","last_page":"1419"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9926999807357788,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11689","display_name":"Adversarial Robustness in Machine Learning","score":0.9926999807357788,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14414","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Education","score":0.003599999938160181,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11424","display_name":"Security and Verification in Computing","score":0.0003000000142492354,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/large-language-models","display_name":"large language models","score":0.8799999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/prompt-injection","display_name":"prompt injection","score":0.9290000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adversarial-attacks","display_name":"adversarial attacks","score":0.7070000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/exam-assessment","display_name":"exam assessment","score":0.5820000171661377},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ai-security-vulnerabilities","display_name":"AI security vulnerabilities","score":0.722000002861023},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automated-grading","display_name":"automated grading","score":0.367000013589859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/artificial-intelligence-in-education","display_name":"artificial intelligence in education","score":0.47600001096725464}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777286243","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5591926","display_name":"Grading (engineering)","level":2,"score":0.7506999969482422},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5679000020027161},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95713431","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q631425","display_name":"Vulnerability (computing)","level":2,"score":0.5509999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C46355384","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q726686","display_name":"Compromise","level":2,"score":0.5194000005722046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.4837999939918518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C43214815","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7310987","display_name":"Reliability (semiconductor)","level":3,"score":0.4388999938964844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C12174686","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1058438","display_name":"Risk assessment","level":2,"score":0.4221000075340271},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.40049999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.31630000472068787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C188231857","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2585724","display_name":"Educational assessment","level":2,"score":0.3116999864578247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166735990","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1750812","display_name":"Human factors and ergonomics","level":3,"score":0.28360000252723694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.28200000524520874},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C32896092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189447","display_name":"Risk management","level":2,"score":0.2777000069618225},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C42525527","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1209955","display_name":"Formative assessment","level":2,"score":0.2596000134944916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C184356942","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q830382","display_name":"Best practice","level":2,"score":0.25850000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3017944768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1450463","display_name":"Poison control","level":2,"score":0.25049999356269836}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/educsci15111419","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/15/11/1419/pdf?version=1761127064","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738008561","display_name":"Education Sciences","issn_l":"2227-7102","issn":["2227-7102"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:61cc4654dc9f4d30929beda47f13f116","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/61cc4654dc9f4d30929beda47f13f116","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Education Sciences, Vol 15, Iss 11, p 1419 (2025)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:iris.unimore.it:11380/1407848","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/11380/1407848","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400718","display_name":"IRIS UNIMORE (University of Modena and Reggio Emilia)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I122346577","host_organization_name":"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I122346577"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/educsci15111419","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15111419","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/15/11/1419/pdf?version=1761127064","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2738008561","display_name":"Education Sciences","issn_l":"2227-7102","issn":["2227-7102"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","erih-plus","norway-1","poland-70","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Education Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4","display_name":"Quality education","score":0.9235000014305115}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320300","display_name":"European Commission","ror":"https://ror.org/00k4n6c32"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320955","display_name":"Hong Kong Baptist University","ror":"https://ror.org/0145fw131"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415445809.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4415445809.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":25,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2003644900","https://openalex.org/W2020018978","https://openalex.org/W2083780312","https://openalex.org/W2084413241","https://openalex.org/W2110065044","https://openalex.org/W2131261404","https://openalex.org/W2788593603","https://openalex.org/W3048636285","https://openalex.org/W3091714760","https://openalex.org/W4210349431","https://openalex.org/W4252684946","https://openalex.org/W4286455038","https://openalex.org/W4377224197","https://openalex.org/W4399790131","https://openalex.org/W4399803256","https://openalex.org/W4400314861","https://openalex.org/W4401484139","https://openalex.org/W4402217583","https://openalex.org/W4404044052","https://openalex.org/W4406327959","https://openalex.org/W4406908636","https://openalex.org/W4407086173","https://openalex.org/W4410893873","https://openalex.org/W4411337612","https://openalex.org/W4415799204"],"related_works":[],"abstract_inverted_index":{"This":[0],"study":[1,115],"investigates":[2],"how":[3,142],"targeted":[4],"attacks":[5],"can":[6,146],"compromise":[7],"the":[8,48,94,104,111,118,148,156,162,175],"reliability":[9],"and":[10,34,46,61,97,151,164,178],"applications":[11],"of":[12,106,120,167],"large":[13],"language":[14],"models":[15],"(LLMs)":[16],"in":[17,27,137,184],"educational":[18,126,185],"assessment,":[19],"highlighting":[20],"security":[21],"vulnerabilities":[22],"that":[23],"are":[24,38,52],"frequently":[25],"underestimated":[26],"current":[28],"AI-supported":[29],"learning":[30],"environments.":[31],"As":[32],"LLMs":[33,122,168],"other":[35],"AI":[36],"tools":[37],"increasingly":[39],"being":[40],"integrated":[41],"into":[42],"grading,":[43],"providing":[44],"feedback,":[45],"supporting":[47],"evaluation":[49,158],"workflow,":[50],"educators":[51],"adopting":[53],"them":[54],"for":[55],"their":[56,180],"potential":[57],"to":[58,92,116,140,173],"increase":[59],"efficiency":[60],"scalability.":[62],"However,":[63],"this":[64,109],"rapid":[65],"adoption":[66],"also":[67],"introduces":[68],"new":[69],"risks.":[70],"An":[71],"unexplored":[72],"threat":[73],"is":[74,110],"prompt":[75,135],"injection,":[76],"whereby":[77],"a":[78,99,124,130],"student":[79],"acting":[80],"as":[81],"an":[82],"attacker":[83],"embeds":[84],"malicious":[85],"instructions":[86],"within":[87,123],"seemingly":[88],"regular":[89],"assignment":[90],"submissions":[91],"influence":[93],"model\u2019s":[95],"behaviour":[96],"obtain":[98],"more":[100],"favourable":[101],"evaluation.":[102],"To":[103],"best":[105],"our":[107],"knowledge,":[108],"first":[112],"systematic":[113],"comparative":[114],"investigate":[117],"vulnerability":[119],"popular":[121],"real-world":[125],"context.":[127],"We":[128],"analyse":[129],"significant":[131],"representative":[132],"scenario":[133],"involving":[134],"injection":[136],"exam":[138],"assessment":[139],"highlight":[141],"easily":[143],"such":[144],"manipulations":[145],"bypass":[147],"teacher\u2019s":[149],"oversight":[150],"distort":[152],"results,":[153],"thereby":[154],"disrupting":[155],"entire":[157],"process.":[159],"By":[160],"modelling":[161],"structure":[163],"behavioural":[165],"patterns":[166],"under":[169],"attack,":[170],"we":[171],"aim":[172],"clarify":[174],"underlying":[176],"mechanisms":[177],"expose":[179],"limitations":[181],"when":[182],"used":[183],"settings.":[186]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":11}],"updated_date":"2026-10-12T09:40:04.860316","created_date":"2025-10-24T00:00:00"}