{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4401719802","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","title":"SoK: Public Blockchain Sharding","display_name":"SoK: Public Blockchain Sharding","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-05-27","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4401719802","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4363608612","display_name":"IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"conference"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2024 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},"volume":null,"type":"conference-paper","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["arxiv","crossref","datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2405.20521","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5099031045","display_name":"Md Mohaimin Al Barat","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7249-1409","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7249-1409"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I859038795","display_name":"Virginia Tech","ror":"https://ror.org/02smfhw86","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Md Mohaimin Al Barat","raw_affiliation_strings":["Virginia Tech,USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Virginia Tech,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5006351304","display_name":"Shichuan Li","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0661-5020","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0661-5020"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I859038795","display_name":"Virginia Tech","ror":"https://ror.org/02smfhw86","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Shaoyu Li","raw_affiliation_strings":["Virginia Tech,USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Virginia Tech,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082937572","display_name":"Changlai Du","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8888-7440","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8888-7440"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I859038795","display_name":"Virginia Tech","ror":"https://ror.org/02smfhw86","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Changlai Du","raw_affiliation_strings":["Virginia Tech,USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Virginia Tech,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101807623","display_name":"Yiwei Thomas Hou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5808-9553","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5808-9553"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I859038795","display_name":"Virginia Tech","ror":"https://ror.org/02smfhw86","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Y. Thomas Hou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Virginia Tech,USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Virginia Tech,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5001879281","display_name":"Wenjing Lou","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2421-4623","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2421-4623"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I859038795","display_name":"Virginia Tech","ror":"https://ror.org/02smfhw86","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wenjing Lou","raw_affiliation_strings":["Virginia Tech,USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Virginia Tech,USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I859038795"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.0747,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":13,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93682129,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":"766","last_page":"783"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9990000128746033,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10270","display_name":"Blockchain Technology Applications and Security","score":0.9990000128746033,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13913","display_name":"Blockchain Technology in Education and Learning","score":0.0005000000237487257,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1710","display_name":"Information Systems"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10772","display_name":"Distributed systems and fault tolerance","score":9.999999747378752e-05,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1705","display_name":"Computer Networks and Communications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/blockchain-sharding","display_name":"blockchain sharding","score":0.9670000076293945},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-blockchain","display_name":"public blockchain","score":0.7979999780654907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scalability","display_name":"scalability","score":0.6230000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/throughput","display_name":"throughput","score":0.9399999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transaction-verification","display_name":"transaction verification","score":0.5879999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/performance-comparison","display_name":"performance comparison","score":0.5960000157356262}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779687700","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q20514253","display_name":"Blockchain","level":2,"score":0.9601166844367981},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.46764418482780457},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.26130127906799316}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/icbc59979.2024.10634422","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4363608612","display_name":"IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"conference"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"2024 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC)","raw_type":"proceedings-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2405.20521","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2405.20521","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2405.20521","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2405.20521","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2405.20521","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2405.20521","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article-journal"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2405.20521","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2405.20521","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2405.20521","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure","score":0.7207000255584717}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G2162605325","display_name":"EAGER: Toward a Decentralized Cross-administrator Zone Management System: Policy and Technology","funder_award_id":"2331936","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G3405165046","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"N00014-19-1-2621","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337345","funder_display_name":"Office of Naval Research"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G393918126","display_name":"Collaborative Research: SaTC: CORE: Medium: An Anti-tracking and Robocall-free Architecture for Next-G Mobile Networks","funder_award_id":"2247560","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5192101867","display_name":"Collaborative Research: SaTC: CORE: Medium: A Networking Perspective of Blockchain Security: Modeling, Analysis, and Defense","funder_award_id":"2154929","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G847316258","display_name":"SaTC: CORE: Medium: Collaborative: Toward Enforceable Data Usage Control in Cloud-based IoT Systems","funder_award_id":"1916902","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/G8876996369","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"N00014","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337345","funder_display_name":"Office of Naval Research"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320337345","display_name":"Office of Naval Research","ror":"https://ror.org/00rk2pe57"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401719802.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4401719802.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":99,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W95608104","https://openalex.org/W197129110","https://openalex.org/W1498129884","https://openalex.org/W1520914943","https://openalex.org/W1572695506","https://openalex.org/W1593596963","https://openalex.org/W1600255172","https://openalex.org/W1965492831","https://openalex.org/W1972614536","https://openalex.org/W1982525351","https://openalex.org/W1988655303","https://openalex.org/W2003214215","https://openalex.org/W2003406796","https://openalex.org/W2025142762","https://openalex.org/W2038562061","https://openalex.org/W2064423787","https://openalex.org/W2098104887","https://openalex.org/W2110950492","https://openalex.org/W2112963602","https://openalex.org/W2113307832","https://openalex.org/W2114780662","https://openalex.org/W2119245106","https://openalex.org/W2126087831","https://openalex.org/W2126924915","https://openalex.org/W2131132597","https://openalex.org/W2137042154","https://openalex.org/W2148575324","https://openalex.org/W2156580773","https://openalex.org/W2168970529","https://openalex.org/W2181397138","https://openalex.org/W2183126124","https://openalex.org/W2223468118","https://openalex.org/W2281208003","https://openalex.org/W2295940006","https://openalex.org/W2335755599","https://openalex.org/W2399579591","https://openalex.org/W2511446761","https://openalex.org/W2534313446","https://openalex.org/W2535104337","https://openalex.org/W2536325433","https://openalex.org/W2573050643","https://openalex.org/W2605103916","https://openalex.org/W2626692761","https://openalex.org/W2717184009","https://openalex.org/W2725542890","https://openalex.org/W2732281924","https://openalex.org/W2734941459","https://openalex.org/W2739845435","https://openalex.org/W2745969156","https://openalex.org/W2757315172","https://openalex.org/W2762888877","https://openalex.org/W2763398287","https://openalex.org/W2794533297","https://openalex.org/W2800976054","https://openalex.org/W2811205501","https://openalex.org/W2891724828","https://openalex.org/W2897676665","https://openalex.org/W2901943454","https://openalex.org/W2907683311","https://openalex.org/W2913110699","https://openalex.org/W2913874515","https://openalex.org/W2918478470","https://openalex.org/W2919530665","https://openalex.org/W2926987861","https://openalex.org/W2944812228","https://openalex.org/W2949424078","https://openalex.org/W2952086493","https://openalex.org/W2952488573","https://openalex.org/W2956869838","https://openalex.org/W2963264685","https://openalex.org/W2963997141","https://openalex.org/W2971121192","https://openalex.org/W2975872441","https://openalex.org/W2977921325","https://openalex.org/W2979990733","https://openalex.org/W2981755312","https://openalex.org/W2982212956","https://openalex.org/W2998762116","https://openalex.org/W3000300501","https://openalex.org/W3006291258","https://openalex.org/W3016150129","https://openalex.org/W3017248416","https://openalex.org/W3043572547","https://openalex.org/W3047676083","https://openalex.org/W3091665258","https://openalex.org/W3106753174","https://openalex.org/W3123503292","https://openalex.org/W3151748982","https://openalex.org/W3154548150","https://openalex.org/W3175791793","https://openalex.org/W4211068006","https://openalex.org/W4248175462","https://openalex.org/W4283215940","https://openalex.org/W4292387255","https://openalex.org/W4301017580","https://openalex.org/W4384880780","https://openalex.org/W4390746573","https://openalex.org/W4405183504","https://openalex.org/W6769242419"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2982212956","https://openalex.org/W7222210733","https://openalex.org/W4394827800","https://openalex.org/W7162321155","https://openalex.org/W4388671370","https://openalex.org/W4306292967","https://openalex.org/W4362680607","https://openalex.org/W4416364450","https://openalex.org/W2944812228","https://openalex.org/W4405189055"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Blockchain\u2019s":[0],"decentralization,":[1],"transparency,":[2],"and":[3,19,44,86,92,141,153,157],"tamper-resistance":[4],"properties":[5],"have":[6,31,104,115],"facilitated":[7],"the":[8,16,24,51,54,59,64,67,84,90,97,108,133,144],"system\u2019s":[9],"use":[10],"in":[11,66,76,80,93,111],"various":[12],"application":[13],"fields.":[14],"However,":[15,101],"low":[17],"throughput":[18,98],"high":[20],"confirmation":[21],"latency":[22],"hinder":[23],"widespread":[25],"adoption":[26],"of":[27,126,128,136,143],"Blockchain.":[28],"Many":[29],"solutions":[30,40,46],"been":[32],"proposed":[33,52],"to":[34,82,89],"address":[35],"these":[36],"issues,":[37],"including":[38,132],"first-layer":[39],"(or":[41,47],"on-chain":[42],"solutions)":[43],"second-layer":[45],"off-chain":[48],"solutions).":[49],"Among":[50],"solutions,":[53],"blockchain":[55,112,130],"sharding":[56,137,146],"system":[57],"is":[58],"most":[60],"scalable":[61],"one,":[62],"where":[63],"nodes":[65,75],"network":[68],"are":[69],"divided":[70],"into":[71],"several":[72],"groups.":[73],"The":[74],"different":[77],"shards":[78],"work":[79],"parallel":[81],"validate":[83],"transactions":[85],"add":[87],"them":[88],"blocks,":[91],"such":[94],"a":[95,124],"way,":[96],"increases":[99],"significantly.":[100],"previous":[102],"works":[103],"not":[105],"adequately":[106],"summarized":[107],"latest":[109,145],"achievements":[110],"sharding,":[113,131],"nor":[114],"they":[116],"fully":[117],"showcased":[118],"its":[119],"state-of-the-art.":[120],"Our":[121],"study":[122],"provides":[123],"systemization":[125],"knowledge":[127],"public":[129],"core":[134],"components":[135],"systems,":[138],"challenges,":[139],"limitations,":[140],"mechanisms":[142],"protocols.":[147],"We":[148],"also":[149],"compare":[150],"their":[151],"performance":[152],"discuss":[154],"current":[155],"constraints":[156],"future":[158],"research":[159],"directions.":[160]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2024-08-22T00:00:00"}