{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4396768069","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","title":"Enhanced deep knowledge tracing via synthetic embeddings","display_name":"Enhanced deep knowledge tracing via synthetic embeddings","publication_year":2026,"publication_date":"2026-04-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4396768069","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764999920","display_name":"International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics","issn_l":"1868-8071","issn":["1868-8071","1868-808X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-d","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://www.techrxiv.org/doi/pdf/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089","any_repository_has_fulltext":null},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5101935210","display_name":"Si Shi","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6952-9848","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6952-9848","https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7013-712X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I49835588","display_name":"Macao Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/02sf5td35","country_code":"MO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I90610280","display_name":"South China University of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/0530pts50","country_code":"CN","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I90610280"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9360294","display_name":"University of Bologna","ror":"https://ror.org/01111rn36","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]}],"countries":["CN","IT","MO","US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Si Shi","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, South China University of Technology, No. 381, Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510641, Guangdong Province, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","University of California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Civil Engineering and Transportation, South China University of Technology, No. 381, Wushan Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510641, Guangdong Province, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I90610280"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765","https://openalex.org/I9360294"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5100513359","display_name":"Wuman Luo","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2480-3997","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2480-3997"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I49835588","display_name":"Macao Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/02sf5td35","country_code":"MO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9360294","display_name":"University of Bologna","ror":"https://ror.org/01111rn36","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]}],"countries":["IT","MO","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Wuman Luo","raw_affiliation_strings":["Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, R. de Lu\u00eds Gonzaga Gomes, Macao, 999078, Macao, China","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","University of California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, R. de Lu\u00eds Gonzaga Gomes, Macao, 999078, Macao, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765","https://openalex.org/I9360294"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048063581","display_name":"Giovanni Pau","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2216-7170","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2216-7170","https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5798-398X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I161318765","display_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","ror":"https://ror.org/046rm7j60","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I49835588","display_name":"Macao Polytechnic University","ror":"https://ror.org/02sf5td35","country_code":"MO","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I9360294","display_name":"University of Bologna","ror":"https://ror.org/01111rn36","country_code":"IT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]}],"countries":["IT","MO","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Giovanni Pau","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Zamboni, 33, 40126, Bologna, Emilia-Romagna, Italy","UCLA Samueli Computer Science, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA","Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","University of California, Los Angeles, USA"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Via Zamboni, 33, 40126, Bologna, Emilia-Romagna, Italy","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I9360294"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"UCLA Samueli Computer Science, University of California, Los Angeles, 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy, and UCLA Samueli Computer Science,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765","https://openalex.org/I9360294"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Faculty of Applied Sciences, Macao Polytechnic University, Macao SAR, China","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I49835588"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of California, Los Angeles, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":4,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5101935210"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I161318765","https://openalex.org/I49835588","https://openalex.org/I90610280","https://openalex.org/I9360294"],"apc_list":{"value":3990,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3990},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.9692,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90566377,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":95,"max":96},"biblio":{"volume":"17","issue":"6","first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9932000041007996,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11902","display_name":"Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning","score":0.9932000041007996,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11122","display_name":"Online Learning and Analytics","score":0.005499999970197678,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1706","display_name":"Computer Science Applications"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14414","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence in Education","score":9.999999747378752e-05,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/knowledge-tracing","display_name":"knowledge tracing","score":0.996999979019165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-sparsity","display_name":"data sparsity","score":0.8169999718666077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/adaptive-learning","display_name":"adaptive learning","score":0.35499998927116394}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138673069","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q322229","display_name":"Tracing","level":2,"score":0.6991878151893616},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4698573350906372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.4519684612751007},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.08869439363479614}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-026-03104-6","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764999920","display_name":"International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics","issn_l":"1868-8071","issn":["1868-8071","1868-808X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-d","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","pdf_url":"https://www.techrxiv.org/doi/pdf/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089","source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089/v1","pdf_url":"https://www.techrxiv.org/doi/pdf/10.36227/techrxiv.171527529.91775089","source":null,"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4396768069.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4396768069.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":63,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W151377110","https://openalex.org/W650350307","https://openalex.org/W1483702380","https://openalex.org/W1587744656","https://openalex.org/W2015040676","https://openalex.org/W2016288462","https://openalex.org/W2033852356","https://openalex.org/W2117122404","https://openalex.org/W2158698691","https://openalex.org/W2292523511","https://openalex.org/W2295124130","https://openalex.org/W2519887557","https://openalex.org/W2534487308","https://openalex.org/W2559094423","https://openalex.org/W2603824136","https://openalex.org/W2606234010","https://openalex.org/W2611926148","https://openalex.org/W2624431344","https://openalex.org/W2626778328","https://openalex.org/W2739893466","https://openalex.org/W2805035427","https://openalex.org/W2890071599","https://openalex.org/W2899663614","https://openalex.org/W2913933519","https://openalex.org/W2953577593","https://openalex.org/W2957747000","https://openalex.org/W2985331920","https://openalex.org/W2999615587","https://openalex.org/W3006521644","https://openalex.org/W3040479400","https://openalex.org/W3043869244","https://openalex.org/W3094091106","https://openalex.org/W3117062170","https://openalex.org/W3141898517","https://openalex.org/W4230150613","https://openalex.org/W4235765578","https://openalex.org/W4282921621","https://openalex.org/W4284683483","https://openalex.org/W4295788921","https://openalex.org/W4307561542","https://openalex.org/W4311716408","https://openalex.org/W4367047438","https://openalex.org/W4380303532","https://openalex.org/W4382239867","https://openalex.org/W4382469249","https://openalex.org/W4389778412","https://openalex.org/W4390587019","https://openalex.org/W4391381513","https://openalex.org/W4392806396","https://openalex.org/W4393992786","https://openalex.org/W4395028724","https://openalex.org/W4396758733","https://openalex.org/W4397001589","https://openalex.org/W4399990332","https://openalex.org/W4400111732","https://openalex.org/W4400909875","https://openalex.org/W4401024913","https://openalex.org/W4402624074","https://openalex.org/W4403488123","https://openalex.org/W4407449715","https://openalex.org/W4413279402","https://openalex.org/W4416965983","https://openalex.org/W7133210108"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3035442578","https://openalex.org/W4394915660","https://openalex.org/W3006521644","https://openalex.org/W3092957488","https://openalex.org/W2903522813","https://openalex.org/W3079208933","https://openalex.org/W4405849340","https://openalex.org/W4401119851","https://openalex.org/W3212990606","https://openalex.org/W4411011395"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Knowledge":[0,26,106],"tracing,":[1],"a":[2,6,16,71,77,159,165],"mission":[3],"to":[4,151,163,202,217],"estimate":[5],"learner's":[7],"knowledge":[8,67,91,189,208],"level":[9],"over":[10],"time,":[11],"can":[12,20],"be":[13,21],"simulated":[14],"by":[15],"machine.":[17],"Traditionally,":[18],"it":[19,198],"accomplished":[22],"using":[23],"the":[24,35,61,74,84,111,145,153,172,183,193,219,222],"Bayesian":[25],"Tracing":[27,107],"method,":[28,101],"which":[29,109],"mainly":[30],"depends":[31],"upon":[32],"statistics.":[33],"With":[34],"booming":[36],"of":[37,48,76,90,147,195,221],"Artificial":[38],"Intelligence,":[39],"more":[40],"powerful":[41],"machine":[42],"learning-driven":[43],"models":[44,86],"have":[45],"emerged.":[46],"Plenty":[47],"them":[49],"show":[50],"satisfactory":[51],"results.":[52],"However,":[53],"there":[54],"exist":[55],"three":[56],"issues":[57],"so":[58],"far:":[59],"1)":[60],"data":[62,112],"sparsity":[63],"and":[64,114,123,137,181],"quality":[65,113],"in":[66,139,171],"tracing":[68,190,209],"domain":[69],"remains":[70],"problem;":[72],"2)":[73],"hardness":[75,138,173],"question":[78],"is":[79],"not":[80],"designed":[81,132],"properly;":[82],"3)":[83],"current":[85],"lack":[87],"synthesized":[88,124],"components":[89],"tracing.":[92],"To":[93,192],"address":[94],"these":[95],"issues,":[96],"we":[97,131,157],"proposed":[98],"an":[99],"enhanced":[100],"Synthetic":[102],"Separated":[103],"Self-Attentive":[104],"Neural":[105],"(SYNSAINT),":[108],"upgraded":[110],"mined":[115],"inner":[116],"relations":[117],"among":[118],"skills":[119],"with":[120],"clustering":[121,149],"techniques":[122,150],"latent":[125],"necessary":[126],"embeddings.":[127,225],"In":[128],"this":[129],"paper,":[130],"two":[133,186],"novel":[134],"embeddings:":[135],"skillcluster":[136,154],"our":[140,196],"estimation":[141],"system.":[142],"We":[143,175,211],"harnessed":[144],"power":[146],"multistep":[148],"obtain":[152],"embedding.":[155],"Moreover,":[156],"utilized":[158],"sub-neural":[160],"network":[161],"method":[162,184],"assign":[164],"random":[166],"weight":[167],"for":[168],"each":[169],"item":[170],"measurement.":[174],"built":[176],"deep":[177,205],"sequential":[178],"attentive":[179],"structures":[180],"verified":[182],"on":[185],"representative":[187],"open-source":[188],"datasets.":[191],"best":[194],"knowledge,":[197],"was":[199],"proven":[200],"superior":[201],"other":[203],"prevailing":[204],"neural":[206],"networks":[207],"methods.":[210],"also":[212],"implemented":[213],"abundant":[214],"ablation":[215],"studies":[216],"demonstrate":[218],"effects":[220],"newly":[223],"added":[224]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-11-09T13:22:03.289127","created_date":"2024-05-10T00:00:00"}
