{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4391892468","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","title":"Acoustic-Based Online Monitoring of Cooling Fan Malfunction in Air-Forced Transformers Using Learning Techniques","display_name":"Acoustic-Based Online Monitoring of Cooling Fan Malfunction in Air-Forced Transformers Using Learning Techniques","publication_year":2024,"publication_date":"2024-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4391892468","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3366807","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10438358.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10438358.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065775729","display_name":"Reza Nematirad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4423-3036","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4423-3036"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I189590672","display_name":"Kansas State University","ror":"https://ror.org/05p1j8758","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I189590672"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Reza Nematirad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4423-3036","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I189590672"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Mehdi Behrang","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1058-1368","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1058-1368"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I67031392","display_name":"Carleton University","ror":"https://ror.org/02qtvee93","country_code":"CA","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I67031392"]}],"countries":["CA"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mehdi Behrang","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada","Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0005-1058-1368","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I67031392"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I67031392"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5033708638","display_name":"Anil Pahwa","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2106-0825","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2106-0825"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I189590672","display_name":"Kansas State University","ror":"https://ror.org/05p1j8758","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I189590672"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anil Pahwa","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2106-0825","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I189590672"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":{"value":1995,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1995},"apc_paid":{"value":1995,"currency":"USD","value_usd":1995},"fwci":1.5722,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":10,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.81075915,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"12","issue":null,"first_page":"26384","last_page":"26400"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10220","display_name":"Machine Fault Diagnosis Techniques","score":0.8939999938011169,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10220","display_name":"Machine Fault Diagnosis Techniques","score":0.8939999938011169,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11343","display_name":"Power Transformer Diagnostics and Insulation","score":0.09889999777078629,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2208","display_name":"Electrical and Electronic Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11309","display_name":"Music and Audio Processing","score":0.0035000001080334187,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1711","display_name":"Signal Processing"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/acoustic-monitoring","display_name":"acoustic monitoring","score":0.8149999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transformer-cooling-system","display_name":"transformer cooling system","score":0.5379999876022339},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/audio-classification","display_name":"audio classification","score":0.675000011920929},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/spectrogram-features","display_name":"spectrogram features","score":0.7229999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/time-frequency-feature-extraction","display_name":"time-frequency feature extraction","score":0.9279999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/convolutional-neural-networks","display_name":"convolutional neural networks","score":0.9359999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest","display_name":"random forest","score":0.9670000076293945},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-augmentation","display_name":"data augmentation","score":0.9769999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hyperparameter-optimization","display_name":"hyperparameter optimization","score":0.8100000023841858}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7152713537216187},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.6461360454559326},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81363708","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17084460","display_name":"Convolutional neural network","level":2,"score":0.5813745856285095},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66322947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11658","display_name":"Transformer","level":3,"score":0.5603010654449463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.45298582315444946},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C52622490","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1026626","display_name":"Feature extraction","level":2,"score":0.44627270102500916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.42340075969696045},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C8642999","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4171168","display_name":"Hyperparameter","level":2,"score":0.4164016842842102},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.40904974937438965},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C28490314","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189436","display_name":"Speech recognition","level":1,"score":0.33844879269599915},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1605094075202942},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119599485","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43035","display_name":"Electrical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C165801399","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25428","display_name":"Voltage","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3366807","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10438358.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.20944/preprints202401.1266.v1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202401.1266.v1","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://dx.doi.org/10.20944/preprints202401.1266.v1","pdf_url":"https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/202401.1266/v1/download","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S6309402219","display_name":"Preprints.org","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:ee0ce5e500ec4396896eebc314757784","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/ee0ce5e500ec4396896eebc314757784","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access, Vol 12, Pp 26384-26400 (2024)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1109/access.2024.3366807","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2024.3366807","pdf_url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/ielx7/6287639/6514899/10438358.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2485537415","display_name":"IEEE Access","issn_l":"2169-3536","issn":["2169-3536"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319808","host_organization_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319808"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"IEEE Access","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.5690000057220459,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/7","display_name":"Affordable and clean energy"},{"score":0.5378999710083008,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/9","display_name":"Industry, innovation and infrastructure"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320310061","display_name":"Kansas State University","ror":"https://ror.org/05p1j8758"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391892468.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4391892468.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":73,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1965994589","https://openalex.org/W2006546815","https://openalex.org/W2016017684","https://openalex.org/W2072045132","https://openalex.org/W2076700934","https://openalex.org/W2087016914","https://openalex.org/W2095087543","https://openalex.org/W2128790395","https://openalex.org/W2346313263","https://openalex.org/W2480496932","https://openalex.org/W2484239641","https://openalex.org/W2526050071","https://openalex.org/W2593167984","https://openalex.org/W2734353186","https://openalex.org/W2752573270","https://openalex.org/W2884162825","https://openalex.org/W2889229438","https://openalex.org/W2936774411","https://openalex.org/W2954996726","https://openalex.org/W2964297133","https://openalex.org/W2974647700","https://openalex.org/W2976594877","https://openalex.org/W2983061588","https://openalex.org/W2995099348","https://openalex.org/W3006440693","https://openalex.org/W3011974631","https://openalex.org/W3017366864","https://openalex.org/W3023454035","https://openalex.org/W3114543730","https://openalex.org/W3116286104","https://openalex.org/W3118394139","https://openalex.org/W3130141545","https://openalex.org/W3136016591","https://openalex.org/W3161223924","https://openalex.org/W3169776049","https://openalex.org/W3176584380","https://openalex.org/W3184834258","https://openalex.org/W3187206939","https://openalex.org/W3193848276","https://openalex.org/W3195326094","https://openalex.org/W3199821414","https://openalex.org/W3202035931","https://openalex.org/W3204466840","https://openalex.org/W3212077235","https://openalex.org/W3214879983","https://openalex.org/W4200133279","https://openalex.org/W4205241294","https://openalex.org/W4205752351","https://openalex.org/W4206340603","https://openalex.org/W4210659135","https://openalex.org/W4220970483","https://openalex.org/W4223528404","https://openalex.org/W4225304582","https://openalex.org/W4280623898","https://openalex.org/W4280635756","https://openalex.org/W4282981352","https://openalex.org/W4284689409","https://openalex.org/W4285195459","https://openalex.org/W4291701109","https://openalex.org/W4292794159","https://openalex.org/W4296904787","https://openalex.org/W4312348965","https://openalex.org/W4312971841","https://openalex.org/W4313026854","https://openalex.org/W4313856064","https://openalex.org/W4324116353","https://openalex.org/W4387004381","https://openalex.org/W4387968090","https://openalex.org/W4387968529","https://openalex.org/W4389513927","https://openalex.org/W4390357426","https://openalex.org/W4391149065","https://openalex.org/W4391892468"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4390421286","https://openalex.org/W4280563792","https://openalex.org/W2140186469","https://openalex.org/W4206951940","https://openalex.org/W4293868382","https://openalex.org/W4386295066","https://openalex.org/W4382602594","https://openalex.org/W4396679425","https://openalex.org/W4387850423","https://openalex.org/W4372048956"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Cooling":[0],"fans":[1,39,75],"are":[2,64,96,128,146,160],"one":[3],"of":[4,8,37,43,217],"the":[5,24,164,183,194,212,222],"critical":[6],"components":[7],"air-forced":[9,69],"dry-type":[10],"transformers":[11,44],"for":[12],"regulating":[13],"internal":[14],"temperatures.":[15],"Therefore,":[16],"effective":[17],"malfunction":[18,35],"detection":[19,36],"is":[20,171,187],"crucial":[21],"to":[22,68,148,162,192,221],"maintain":[23],"transformer":[25],"temperature":[26],"within":[27],"an":[28],"acceptable":[29],"range":[30],"and":[31,57,100,111,167,176],"prevent":[32],"overheating.":[33],"Current":[34],"cooling":[38,74,78,87],"in":[40,199],"certain":[41],"types":[42],"relies":[45],"on":[46,131,189],"complementary":[47],"indicators,":[48],"such":[49],"as":[50,76,91],"top-oil":[51],"temperature,":[52],"oil":[53,58],"convection,":[54],"dissolved":[55],"gas,":[56],"quality.":[59],"However,":[60],"these":[61],"conventional":[62],"indicators":[63],"not":[65],"directly":[66],"applicable":[67],"transformers,":[70],"which":[71],"primarily":[72],"use":[73],"their":[77],"system.":[79],"To":[80,180],"overcome":[81],"this":[82,84],"challenge,":[83],"study":[85],"utilizes":[86],"fan":[88],"audio":[89,94,119,136,153],"records":[90],"indicators.":[92],"The":[93],"signals":[95],"classified":[97],"into":[98,121],"normal":[99],"malfunctioning":[101],"classes":[102],"using":[103],"advanced":[104],"learning":[105,196],"algorithms,":[106],"including":[107],"convolutional":[108,125,205],"neural":[109,126,206],"networks":[110,127,207],"random":[112,139,209],"forests.":[113],"Learning":[114],"algorithms":[115],"require":[116],"transforming":[117],"recorded":[118],"data":[120,157],"proper":[122],"formats.":[123],"Accordingly,":[124],"trained":[129],"based":[130],"spectrogram":[132],"images":[133],"derived":[134],"from":[135,152],"signals.":[137,154],"For":[138],"forests,":[140,210],"various":[141],"time-frequency":[142],"feature":[143],"extraction":[144],"methods":[145],"used":[147],"derive":[149],"meaningful":[150],"representations":[151],"Besides,":[155],"multiple":[156],"augmentation":[158],"techniques":[159],"employed":[161],"enhance":[163],"dataset":[165,191],"size":[166],"diversity.":[168],"Algorithmic":[169],"performance":[170],"optimized":[172],"through":[173],"hyperparameter":[174],"tuning":[175],"classifier":[177],"threshold":[178],"adjustment.":[179],"further":[181],"validate":[182],"model,":[184],"a":[185],"test":[186],"conducted":[188],"another":[190],"evaluate":[193],"fitted":[195],"model":[197],"applicability":[198],"real-world":[200],"applications.":[201],"Simulations":[202],"reveal":[203],"that":[204],"outperform":[208],"whereas":[211],"latter":[213],"provides":[214],"superior":[215],"interpretability":[216],"acoustic":[218],"features":[219],"compared":[220],"former.":[223]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4}],"updated_date":"2026-10-16T09:59:22.235173","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}