{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4387581373","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","title":"Modeling the Contact Force in Constrained Human\u2013Robot Collisions","display_name":"Modeling the Contact Force in Constrained Human\u2013Robot Collisions","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-10-12","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4387581373","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/machines11100955","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1702/11/10/955/pdf?version=1697163003","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219839","display_name":"Machines","issn_l":"2075-1702","issn":["2075-1702"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-20","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machines","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1702/11/10/955/pdf?version=1697163003","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086146059","display_name":"Sebastian Herbster","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210139350","display_name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Factory Operation and Automation","ror":"https://ror.org/04qfaak15","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350","https://openalex.org/I4923324"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sebastian Herbster","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5060814962","display_name":"Roland Behrens","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5561-454X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5561-454X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210139350","display_name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Factory Operation and Automation","ror":"https://ror.org/04qfaak15","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350","https://openalex.org/I4923324"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Roland Behrens","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5561-454X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5051817928","display_name":"Norbert Elkmann","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210139350","display_name":"Fraunhofer Institute for Factory Operation and Automation","ror":"https://ror.org/04qfaak15","country_code":"DE","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350","https://openalex.org/I4923324"]}],"countries":["DE"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Norbert Elkmann","raw_affiliation_strings":["Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Robotic Systems, Fraunhofer IFF, Sandtorstr. 22, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5060814962"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210139350"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2224},"apc_paid":{"value":2000,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":2224},"fwci":0.785,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":9,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.64645715,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":98},"biblio":{"volume":"11","issue":"10","first_page":"955","last_page":"955"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10653","display_name":"Robot Manipulation and Learning","score":0.9789999723434448,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10653","display_name":"Robot Manipulation and Learning","score":0.9789999723434448,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2207","display_name":"Control and Systems Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11023","display_name":"Prosthetics and Rehabilitation Robotics","score":0.004800000227987766,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10868","display_name":"Soft Robotics and Applications","score":0.0024999999441206455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2204","display_name":"Biomedical Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-robot-collision","display_name":"human-robot collision","score":0.7390000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/collaborative-robots","display_name":"collaborative robots","score":0.7300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/contact-force-model","display_name":"contact force modeling","score":0.8009999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/iso-ts-15066","display_name":"ISO/TS 15066","score":0.9980000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-safety","display_name":"human safety","score":0.5920000076293945}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90509273","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11012","display_name":"Robot","level":2,"score":0.8112372756004333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121704057","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q352070","display_name":"Collision","level":2,"score":0.6705507636070251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C81302111","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2916417","display_name":"Contact force","level":2,"score":0.6298506259918213},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44154836","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45045","display_name":"Simulation","level":1,"score":0.554084062576294},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C49261128","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1132455","display_name":"Hazard","level":2,"score":0.4945060908794403},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776743756","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5097921","display_name":"Safeguarding","level":2,"score":0.4921957552433014},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.4897160828113556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39920418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11476","display_name":"Kinematics","level":2,"score":0.4447324573993683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145460709","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q859951","display_name":"Human\u2013robot interaction","level":3,"score":0.41659337282180786},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47446073","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5165890","display_name":"Control theory (sociology)","level":3,"score":0.35567983984947205},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.33941930532455444},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.22253593802452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.12727460265159607},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.11478874087333679},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.09284138679504395},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178790620","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11351","display_name":"Organic chemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159110408","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121176","display_name":"Nursing","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C74650414","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11397","display_name":"Classical mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/machines11100955","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1702/11/10/955/pdf?version=1697163003","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219839","display_name":"Machines","issn_l":"2075-1702","issn":["2075-1702"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-20","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machines","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:0bf7763d71f1441d8285bd9962d71bd1","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/0bf7763d71f1441d8285bd9962d71bd1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Machines, Vol 11, Iss 10, p 955 (2023)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:publica.fraunhofer.de:publica/451698","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://publica.fraunhofer.de/handle/publica/451698","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400318","display_name":"Fraunhofer-Publica (Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4923324","host_organization_name":"Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4923324"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"journal article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/machines11100955","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11100955","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1702/11/10/955/pdf?version=1697163003","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210219839","display_name":"Machines","issn_l":"2075-1702","issn":["2075-1702"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-20","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Machines","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387581373.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4387581373.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":17,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1480904650","https://openalex.org/W2022965255","https://openalex.org/W2042559652","https://openalex.org/W2100913768","https://openalex.org/W2121991065","https://openalex.org/W2131404784","https://openalex.org/W2149085596","https://openalex.org/W2195556181","https://openalex.org/W2783192400","https://openalex.org/W2809984748","https://openalex.org/W3169462964","https://openalex.org/W4241135662","https://openalex.org/W4244661515","https://openalex.org/W4245882831","https://openalex.org/W4285723424","https://openalex.org/W4383954961","https://openalex.org/W7016087308"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3082157801","https://openalex.org/W2157453216","https://openalex.org/W3160377765","https://openalex.org/W7135057634","https://openalex.org/W3161605745","https://openalex.org/W3214937729","https://openalex.org/W4403278853","https://openalex.org/W3108596256","https://openalex.org/W1954892588","https://openalex.org/W4210288987"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Collaborative":[0],"robots":[1],"(cobots)":[2],"become":[3],"more":[4,6],"and":[5,41,49,109,133,162],"important":[7],"in":[8,175,200],"industrial":[9],"manufacturing":[10],"as":[11,44,72,197],"flexible":[12],"companions,":[13],"working":[14],"side":[15,17],"by":[16,46,61],"with":[18,228],"humans":[19,57],"without":[20],"safety":[21,33],"fences.":[22],"A":[23],"key":[24],"challenge":[25],"of":[26,34,107,194,234,258,265],"such":[27,71,169],"workplaces":[28],"is":[29,95,153],"to":[30,55,114,189,208],"guarantee":[31],"the":[32,35,53,63,112,119,136,141,146,157,165,191,211,232,243,256,263],"human":[36,81,92,147],"co-workers.":[37],"The":[38,121],"safeguarding":[39],"Power":[40],"Force":[42],"Limiting,":[43],"specified":[45],"ISO":[47],"10218-2":[48],"ISO/TS":[50],"15066,":[51],"has":[52,124],"objective":[54],"protect":[56],"against":[58],"robot":[59,64,113,142,158,177],"collisions":[60,73,99],"preventing":[62],"from":[65,159],"exceeding":[66],"biomechanical":[67,166],"limits.":[68,167],"Unintended":[69],"contact":[70,192,218],"can":[74,84,143,171,253],"occur":[75,199],"under":[76,100,222],"unconstrained":[77],"spatial":[78,89,224],"conditions":[79,90,102],"(a":[80,91],"body":[82,93],"part":[83,94],"move":[85],"freely)":[86],"or":[87],"constrained":[88,101,201,223],"pinched).":[96],"In":[97,179],"particular,":[98],"involve":[103],"a":[104,125,150,184,195,216],"high":[105],"risk":[106],"injury":[108],"thus":[110,134],"require":[111],"stop":[115],"immediately":[116],"after":[117],"detecting":[118],"collision.":[120],"robot\u2019s":[122],"speed":[123],"significant":[126],"influence":[127],"on":[128,135,145],"its":[129],"stopping":[130],"behavior,":[131],"though,":[132],"maximum":[137,212],"collision":[138],"forces":[139,161,193],"that":[140,155,186,220,250],"exert":[144],"body.":[148],"Consequently,":[149],"safe":[151,213],"velocity":[152,214],"required":[154],"avoids":[156],"exerting":[160],"pressures":[163],"beyond":[164],"Today,":[168],"velocities":[170],"only":[172],"be":[173],"ascertained":[174],"costly":[176],"experiments.":[178],"this":[180],"article,":[181],"we":[182,247],"describe":[183],"model":[185,252],"enables":[187],"us":[188],"determine":[190,210],"cobot":[196],"they":[198],"collisions.":[202],"Through":[203],"simulations,":[204],"it":[205],"becomes":[206],"possible":[207],"iteratively":[209],"for":[215,239],"specific":[217],"hazard":[219],"occurs":[221],"conditions.":[225],"Experimental":[226],"tests":[227],"different":[229],"cobots":[230],"confirm":[231],"results":[233],"our":[235,251],"model,":[236],"albeit":[237],"not":[238],"all":[240],"robots.":[241],"Despite":[242],"mixed":[244],"test":[245],"results,":[246],"strongly":[248],"believe":[249],"significantly":[254],"improve":[255],"reliability":[257],"assumptions":[259],"made":[260],"today":[261],"during":[262],"planning":[264],"cobots.":[266]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2023-10-13T00:00:00"}
