{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4367052491","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","title":"What is Hate Speech? The Case for a Corpus Approach","display_name":"What is Hate Speech? The Case for a Corpus Approach","publication_year":2023,"publication_date":"2023-04-26","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4367052491","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S56047584","display_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","issn_l":"1871-9791","issn":["1871-9791","1871-9805"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071069856","display_name":"Maxime Lepoutre","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7573-8585","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7573-8585"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I71052956","display_name":"University of Reading","ror":"https://ror.org/05v62cm79","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Maxime Lepoutre","raw_affiliation_strings":["Politics and International Relations, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7573-8585","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Politics and International Relations, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5086987450","display_name":"Sara Vilar-Lluch","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5495-9386","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5495-9386"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I71052956","display_name":"University of Reading","ror":"https://ror.org/05v62cm79","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Sara Vilar-Lluch","raw_affiliation_strings":["Reading Centre for Cognition Research, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5495-9386","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Reading Centre for Cognition Research, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071234509","display_name":"Emma Borg","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2725-9568","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2725-9568"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I71052956","display_name":"University of Reading","ror":"https://ror.org/05v62cm79","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Emma Borg","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Philosophy, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2725-9568","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Philosophy, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5070406259","display_name":"Nat Hansen","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5074-1075","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5074-1075"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I71052956","display_name":"University of Reading","ror":"https://ror.org/05v62cm79","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Nat Hansen","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Philosophy, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5074-1075","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Philosophy, University of Reading, Reading, Berkshire, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5071069856"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"],"apc_list":{"value":2790,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2790},"apc_paid":{"value":2790,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2790},"fwci":16.552,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":17,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99004799,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":93,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"18","issue":"2","first_page":"397","last_page":"430"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14288","display_name":"Law, Rights, and Freedoms","score":0.9320999979972839,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14288","display_name":"Law, Rights, and Freedoms","score":0.9320999979972839,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14432","display_name":"Freedom of Expression and Defamation","score":0.04780000075697899,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14013","display_name":"Legal Language and Interpretation","score":0.009600000455975533,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hate-speech","display_name":"hate speech","score":0.9990000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ordinary-meaning","display_name":"ordinary meaning","score":0.8730000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/corpus-linguistics","display_name":"corpus linguistics","score":0.9200000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hate-speech-legislation","display_name":"hate speech legislation","score":0.8029999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/freedom-of-expression","display_name":"freedom of expression","score":0.8330000042915344},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rule-of-law","display_name":"rule of law","score":0.9860000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/democracy","display_name":"democracy","score":0.9179999828338623},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-interpretation","display_name":"legal interpretation","score":0.8050000071525574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/legal-theory","display_name":"legal theory","score":0.47099998593330383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/definition-of-hate-speech","display_name":"definition of hate speech","score":0.4970000088214874}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780617971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160232","display_name":"Hatred","level":3,"score":0.7003512978553772},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780876879","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3054749","display_name":"Meaning (existential)","level":2,"score":0.6274256706237793},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162040827","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126842","display_name":"Philosophy of law","level":3,"score":0.563309907913208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C146153142","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1056732","display_name":"Ordinary language philosophy","level":3,"score":0.5588111281394958},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C555826173","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7174","display_name":"Democracy","level":3,"score":0.548038125038147},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984865316","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25481968","display_name":"Speech act","level":2,"score":0.5071671009063721},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.48015516996383667},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.45450952649116516},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.40763619542121887},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.376178115606308},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.26094764471054077},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.26033180952072144},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C170143251","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q842333","display_name":"Western philosophy","level":2,"score":0.13613438606262207},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.13484200835227966},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177986884","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207892","display_name":"Public law","level":2,"score":0.11531245708465576}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S56047584","display_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","issn_l":"1871-9791","issn":["1871-9791","1871-9805"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/:20008732","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402483","display_name":"Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","host_organization_name":"University of Nottingham","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"other-oa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/other-oa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:nottingham-repository.worktribe.com:20008732","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/output/20008732","pdf_url":"https://nottingham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/20011549/s11572-023-09675-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402483","display_name":"Repository@Nottingham (University of Nottingham)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I142263535","host_organization_name":"University of Nottingham","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I142263535"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:centaur.reading.ac.uk:109726","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://centaur.reading.ac.uk/109726/1/2023-01-25%20LePoutre.pdf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402273","display_name":"CentAUR (University of Reading)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I71052956","host_organization_name":"University of Reading","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I71052956"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk:171818","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/171818/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401195","display_name":"ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I79510175","host_organization_name":"Cardiff University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I79510175"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:philarchive.org/rec/LEPWIH","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://philarchive.org/rec/LEPWIH","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402130","display_name":"PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:philpapers.org/rec/LEPWIH","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://philpapers.org/rec/LEPWIH","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402130","display_name":"PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7","pdf_url":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11572-023-09675-7.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S56047584","display_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","issn_l":"1871-9791","issn":["1871-9791","1871-9805"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319900","host_organization_name":"Springer Science+Business Media","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319900","https://openalex.org/P4310319965"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Springer Science+Business Media","Springer Nature"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Criminal Law and Philosophy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.9200000166893005,"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320308269","display_name":"Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung","ror":"https://ror.org/012kf4317"},{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320320326","display_name":"University of Reading","ror":"https://ror.org/05v62cm79"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4367052491.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4367052491.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":30,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1574968832","https://openalex.org/W1588847699","https://openalex.org/W2023736093","https://openalex.org/W2343110656","https://openalex.org/W2465463612","https://openalex.org/W2490623621","https://openalex.org/W2539839461","https://openalex.org/W2602326674","https://openalex.org/W2606754711","https://openalex.org/W2891976437","https://openalex.org/W2896280782","https://openalex.org/W2910395855","https://openalex.org/W2912023684","https://openalex.org/W2925095791","https://openalex.org/W2952274844","https://openalex.org/W2982314133","https://openalex.org/W2997359348","https://openalex.org/W3137050806","https://openalex.org/W4206220215","https://openalex.org/W4225905945","https://openalex.org/W4235314030","https://openalex.org/W4237822703","https://openalex.org/W4243152066","https://openalex.org/W4244852330","https://openalex.org/W4250579289","https://openalex.org/W4251729746","https://openalex.org/W4255950196","https://openalex.org/W4366957771","https://openalex.org/W4392178745","https://openalex.org/W6980466906"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4377820521","https://openalex.org/W4401356297","https://openalex.org/W4317373410","https://openalex.org/W4387932749","https://openalex.org/W6904664918","https://openalex.org/W3121964304","https://openalex.org/W7169847801","https://openalex.org/W4401356113","https://openalex.org/W2602326674","https://openalex.org/W4416108120"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Contemporary":[1],"public":[2],"discourse":[3],"is":[4],"saturated":[5],"with":[6,87],"speech":[7,81],"that":[8,73,114],"vilifies":[9],"and":[10,27,40,55,76,93,139,143],"incites":[11],"hatred":[12],"or":[13],"violence":[14],"against":[15],"vulnerable":[16],"groups.":[17],"The":[18],"term":[19],"\u201chate":[20,67,102,128],"speech\u201d":[21],"has":[22],"emerged":[23],"in":[24,28,111],"legal":[25,38,112],"circles":[26],"ordinary":[29,64,99,125],"language":[30],"to":[31,33,45],"refer":[32],"these":[34],"communicative":[35],"acts.":[36],"But":[37],"theorists":[39],"philosophers":[41],"disagree":[42],"over":[43],"how":[44],"define":[46],"this":[47],"term.":[48],"This":[49],"paper":[50],"makes":[51],"the":[52,58,63,88,98,124,141,147],"case":[53],"for,":[54],"subsequently":[56],"develops,":[57],"first":[59,148],"corpus-based":[60],"analysis":[61],"of":[62,66,90,101,127,135],"meaning":[65,100,126],"speech.\u201d":[68,103,129],"We":[69],"begin":[70],"by":[71,137],"demonstrating":[72],"key":[74],"interpretive":[75,142],"moral":[77,144],"disputes":[78],"surrounding":[79,84],"hate":[80],"laws\u2014in":[82],"particular,":[83],"their":[85],"compatibility":[86],"rule":[89],"law,":[91],"democracy,":[92],"free":[94],"speech\u2014depend":[95],"crucially":[96],"on":[97,108],"Next,":[104],"we":[105,131],"argue,":[106],"drawing":[107],"recent":[109],"developments":[110],"philosophy,":[113],"corpus":[115],"linguistics":[116],"constitutes":[117],"a":[118,133],"distinctively":[119],"promising":[120],"tool":[121],"for":[122],"ascertaining":[123],"Finally,":[130],"offer":[132],"proof":[134],"concept,":[136],"outlining,":[138],"analyzing":[140],"implications":[145],"of,":[146],"such":[149],"study.":[150]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2023-04-27T00:00:00"}
