{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4313429666","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","title":"Minimal representations of possibility at age 3","display_name":"Minimal representations of possibility at age 3","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-12-19","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4313429666","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36534794","pmcid":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9907095"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.2207499119","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-3","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5030901581","display_name":"Brian Leahy","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1815-6981","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1815-6981"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Brian Leahy","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1815-6981","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5048660504","display_name":"Michael Huemer","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2346-3468","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2346-3468"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I182212641","display_name":"University of Salzburg","ror":"https://ror.org/05gs8cd61","country_code":"AT","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I182212641"]}],"countries":["AT","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Michael Huemer","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2346-3468","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Salzburg, 5020 Salzburg, Austria","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I182212641"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Matt Steele","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Matt Steele","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5071382221","display_name":"Stephanie Alderete","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-6199","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-6199"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Stephanie Alderete","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1241-6199","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5051331521","display_name":"Susan E. Carey","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7913-2687","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7913-2687"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Susan Carey","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5030901581"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":8.7527,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":35,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98045603,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"119","issue":"52","first_page":"e2207499119","last_page":"e2207499119"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10656","display_name":"Child and Animal Learning Development","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10656","display_name":"Child and Animal Learning Development","score":0.9878000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10730","display_name":"Language Development and Disorders","score":0.005799999926239252,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11345","display_name":"Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills","score":0.0012000000569969416,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/might","display_name":"might","score":0.46700000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/minimal-representation","display_name":"minimal representation","score":0.4620000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/young-children","display_name":"young children","score":0.45100000500679016},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/planning","display_name":"planning","score":0.46399998664855957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/expected-reward","display_name":"expected reward","score":0.6399999856948853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/overfitting","display_name":"overfitting","score":0.4869999885559082},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/model-building","display_name":"model development","score":0.31299999356269836},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/choice-behavior","display_name":"choice behavior","score":0.33899998664855957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hidden-objects","display_name":"hidden objects","score":0.41999998688697815},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/three-year-old-children","display_name":"three-year-old children","score":0.46700000762939453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-development","display_name":"cognitive development","score":0.3919999897480011}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C117354338","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1165112","display_name":"Singleton","level":3,"score":0.8733507394790649},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781018962","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5164884","display_name":"Container (type theory)","level":2,"score":0.7617582082748413},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780801425","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5164392","display_name":"Construct (python library)","level":2,"score":0.5640166401863098},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.46703240275382996},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.4344305992126465},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144237770","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q747534","display_name":"Mathematical economics","level":1,"score":0.3223607540130615},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.27479302883148193},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.10260200500488281},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779234561","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11995","display_name":"Pregnancy","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C54355233","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7162","display_name":"Genetics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D002648","descriptor_name":"Child","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002675","descriptor_name":"Child, Preschool","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002755","descriptor_name":"Choice Behavior","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012201","descriptor_name":"Reward","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.2207499119","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-3","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9907095","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9907095","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmid:36534794","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36534794","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America","raw_type":"Journal Article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1073/pnas.2207499119","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2207499119","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S125754415","display_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issn_l":"0027-8424","issn":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-3","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320052","host_organization_name":"National Academy of Sciences","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320052"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["National Academy of Sciences"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":8,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2401151040","https://openalex.org/W2475307512","https://openalex.org/W2802158314","https://openalex.org/W2937780504","https://openalex.org/W2995029086","https://openalex.org/W3080285844","https://openalex.org/W4206297071","https://openalex.org/W4306771301"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7162197620","https://openalex.org/W4390441593","https://openalex.org/W4367598634","https://openalex.org/W4403185435","https://openalex.org/W7215780334","https://openalex.org/W4307843514","https://openalex.org/W4293446058","https://openalex.org/W6885027059","https://openalex.org/W7118465001","https://openalex.org/W2977330757"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Young":[0],"children":[1,201],"do":[2,80],"not":[3,81,101],"always":[4],"consider":[5],"alternative":[6],"possibilities":[7],"when":[8,140,167],"planning.":[9],"Suppose":[10],"a":[11,16,31,59,103,122,133,144,172,188],"prize":[12,22,123,134],"is":[13,23,137,198],"hidden":[14,24],"in":[15,25,95,161,221],"single":[17],"occluded":[18,27],"container":[19,36,94,173],"and":[20,37,99,135,164],"another":[21],"an":[26,108],"pair.":[28,192],"If":[29],"given":[30],"chance":[32],"to":[33,142,169],"choose":[34,58,143],"one":[35],"receive":[38,178],"its":[39],"contents,":[40],"choosing":[41],"the":[42,51,62,66,96,113,119,130,158,179,191],"singleton":[43,120],"maximizes":[44],"expected":[45,72,199],"reward":[46],"because":[47],"each":[48,93],"member":[49,60,128,189],"of":[50,61,112,129,157,190,196,219],"pair":[52,63,97,131],"might":[53,98,100],"be":[54],"empty.":[55,138],"Yet,":[56],"3-y-olds":[57,79],"almost":[64],"half":[65],"time.":[67],"Why":[68],"don't":[69],"they":[70,106,146,176,184],"maximize":[71],"reward?":[73],"Three":[74],"studies":[75,162],"provide":[76],"evidence":[77],"that":[78,92,115,118,175],"deploy":[82],"possibility":[83,211],"concepts":[84,212],"like":[85],"MIGHT,":[86],"which":[87,127,136],"would":[88],"let":[89],"them":[90,220],"represent":[91],"contain":[102],"prize.":[104],"Rather,":[105],"build":[107],"overly":[109,203],"specific":[110,204],"model":[111],"situation":[114],"correctly":[116],"specifies":[117],"holds":[121,132],"while":[124],"inappropriately":[125],"specifying":[126],"So,":[139],"asked":[141,168],"container,":[145],"see":[147],"two":[148],"equally":[149],"good":[150],"options.":[151],"This":[152],"predicts":[153],"approximately":[154],"50%":[155],"choice":[156],"singleton,":[159],"observed":[160],"1":[163],"3.":[165],"But":[166],"throw":[170,186],"away":[171,187],"so":[174],"can":[177],"remaining":[180],"contents":[181],"(study":[182],"2),":[183],"mostly":[185],"The":[193],"full":[194],"pattern":[195],"data":[197],"if":[200],"construct":[202],"models.":[205],"We":[206],"discuss":[207],"whether":[208,214],"3-year-olds":[209],"lack":[210],"or":[213],"performance":[215],"demands":[216],"prevent":[217],"deployment":[218],"our":[222],"tasks.":[223]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":12}],"updated_date":"2026-10-31T12:09:11.096373","created_date":"2023-01-06T00:00:00"}