{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4282967944","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","title":"Prediction as a basis for skilled reading: insights from modern language models","display_name":"Prediction as a basis for skilled reading: insights from modern language models","publication_year":2022,"publication_date":"2022-06-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4282967944","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35719885","pmcid":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9198501"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1098/rsos.211837","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2737558550","display_name":"Royal Society Open Science","issn_l":"2054-5703","issn":["2054-5703"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319787","host_organization_name":"Royal Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319787"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Royal Society"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Royal Society Open Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5063109604","display_name":"Benedetta Cevoli","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4282-9733","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4282-9733"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I124357947","display_name":"University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04cw6st05","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Benedetta Cevoli","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032771817","display_name":"Chris Watkins","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9020-4530","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9020-4530"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Chris Watkins","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Computer Science, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Computer Science, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5009937383","display_name":"Kathleen Rastle","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3070-7555","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3070-7555"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I124357947","display_name":"University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04cw6st05","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184558857","display_name":"Royal Holloway University of London","ror":"https://ror.org/04g2vpn86","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}],"countries":["GB"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Kathleen Rastle","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3070-7555","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5009937383"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I124357947","https://openalex.org/I184558857"],"apc_list":{"value":1200,"currency":"GBP","value_usd":1471},"apc_paid":{"value":1200,"currency":"GBP","value_usd":1471},"fwci":7.9088,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":38,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97858444,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"9","issue":"6","first_page":"211837","last_page":"211837"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10103","display_name":"Reading and Literacy Development","score":0.9887999892234802,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10103","display_name":"Reading and Literacy Development","score":0.9887999892234802,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10465","display_name":"Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism","score":0.009399999864399433,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11587","display_name":"Second Language Acquisition and Learning","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3204","display_name":"Developmental and Educational Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/skilled-reading","display_name":"skilled reading","score":0.8510000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word-prediction","display_name":"word prediction","score":0.781000018119812},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/prediction-error","display_name":"prediction error","score":0.6620000004768372},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/eye-movements","display_name":"eye movements","score":0.7390000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/fixation-duration","display_name":"fixation duration","score":0.8980000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/word-skipping","display_name":"word skipping","score":0.5910000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gpt-2","display_name":"GPT-2","score":0.8299999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-models","display_name":"language models","score":0.8019999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/text-statistics","display_name":"text statistics","score":0.8429999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/language-comprehension","display_name":"language comprehension","score":0.7649999856948853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/reading-speed","display_name":"reading speed","score":0.3529999852180481}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.7442136406898499},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C511192102","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5156948","display_name":"Comprehension","level":2,"score":0.6499876976013184},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C137293760","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3621696","display_name":"Language model","level":2,"score":0.6327877640724182},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C554936623","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199657","display_name":"Reading (process)","level":2,"score":0.604023277759552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204321447","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q30642","display_name":"Natural language processing","level":1,"score":0.5628165006637573},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5187357068061829},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C90805587","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10944557","display_name":"Word (group theory)","level":2,"score":0.4805872440338135},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153050134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q760256","display_name":"Eye movement","level":2,"score":0.44801610708236694},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.4322552978992462},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778780117","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3269423","display_name":"Reading comprehension","level":3,"score":0.4112859070301056},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.312713623046875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.24078941345214844},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1098/rsos.211837","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2737558550","display_name":"Royal Society Open Science","issn_l":"2054-5703","issn":["2054-5703"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319787","host_organization_name":"Royal Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319787"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Royal Society"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Royal Society Open Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.31234/osf.io/urjh4","doi":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/urjh4","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/urjh4","pdf_url":"https://psyarxiv.com/urjh4/download","source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:9198501","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/9198501","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"R Soc Open Sci","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmid:35719885","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35719885","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Royal Society open science","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:24478bdf3c92450db0db1957ca142617","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/24478bdf3c92450db0db1957ca142617","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Royal Society Open Science, Vol 9, Iss 6 (2022)","raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:E0152-40E-4F0","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://doi.org/10.31234/OSF.IO/URJH4","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401687","display_name":"PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"preprint"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:da672c24-cc00-4004-9033-7ac96de99242","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://osf.io/urjh4","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401687","display_name":"PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1098/rsos.211837","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.211837","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2737558550","display_name":"Royal Society Open Science","issn_l":"2054-5703","issn":["2054-5703"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-c","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","norway-1","oarl","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319787","host_organization_name":"Royal Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319787"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Royal Society"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Royal Society Open Science","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5568354322","display_name":"Uncovering the Role of Sleep in the Acquisition of Linguistic Knowledge","funder_award_id":"ES/P001874/1","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334630","funder_display_name":"Economic and Social Research Council"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320334630","display_name":"Economic and Social Research Council","ror":"https://ror.org/03n0ht308"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4282967944.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W4282967944.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":49,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W260994251","https://openalex.org/W294103321","https://openalex.org/W1146351399","https://openalex.org/W1566272905","https://openalex.org/W1597803955","https://openalex.org/W1614298861","https://openalex.org/W1682431627","https://openalex.org/W1951724000","https://openalex.org/W1971253061","https://openalex.org/W1979900603","https://openalex.org/W1982350233","https://openalex.org/W1983578042","https://openalex.org/W1985982445","https://openalex.org/W2022449868","https://openalex.org/W2028675369","https://openalex.org/W2034676785","https://openalex.org/W2041221140","https://openalex.org/W2054125330","https://openalex.org/W2054134634","https://openalex.org/W2104741941","https://openalex.org/W2108010971","https://openalex.org/W2113772582","https://openalex.org/W2130987742","https://openalex.org/W2133610185","https://openalex.org/W2154796476","https://openalex.org/W2167164918","https://openalex.org/W2167955944","https://openalex.org/W2179376720","https://openalex.org/W2270070752","https://openalex.org/W2428904845","https://openalex.org/W2554694426","https://openalex.org/W2574026706","https://openalex.org/W2578785875","https://openalex.org/W2611195161","https://openalex.org/W2616278914","https://openalex.org/W2769972173","https://openalex.org/W2796350793","https://openalex.org/W2800516701","https://openalex.org/W2896457183","https://openalex.org/W2906222176","https://openalex.org/W2966983573","https://openalex.org/W2974597461","https://openalex.org/W2979826702","https://openalex.org/W2982616332","https://openalex.org/W3018827121","https://openalex.org/W3033254023","https://openalex.org/W3140196993","https://openalex.org/W3210923133","https://openalex.org/W4283398191"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W6906216904","https://openalex.org/W7127117193","https://openalex.org/W4402822895","https://openalex.org/W3204644074","https://openalex.org/W2552894816","https://openalex.org/W3162841131","https://openalex.org/W7044055926","https://openalex.org/W4404783014","https://openalex.org/W4377997222","https://openalex.org/W4221154555"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Reading":[0],"is":[1],"not":[2],"an":[3],"inborn":[4],"human":[5,148],"capability,":[6],"and":[7,49,73,112,133,136],"yet,":[8],"English-speaking":[9],"adults":[10,61],"read":[11,62],"with":[12],"impressive":[13],"speed.":[14],"This":[15],"study":[16],"considered":[17],"how":[18,74,117],"predictions":[19,37,45,81,98,115],"of":[20,38,57,109,140,147],"upcoming":[21,39,100],"words":[22,40,101],"impact":[23],"on":[24,78,91,106,131],"this":[25],"skilled":[26],"behaviour.":[27],"We":[28],"used":[29],"a":[30,51,87],"powerful":[31],"language":[32,134,142,149],"model":[33],"(GPT-2)":[34],"to":[35,54,68,76,144],"derive":[36],"in":[41,86],"text":[42,110,121],"passages.":[43],"These":[44,126],"were":[46,83],"highly":[47],"accurate":[48],"showed":[50],"tight":[52],"relationship":[53],"fine-grained":[55],"aspects":[56],"eye-movement":[58],"behaviour":[59],"when":[60],"those":[63],"same":[64],"passages,":[65],"including":[66],"whether":[67],"skip":[69],"the":[70,107,138],"next":[71],"word":[72],"long":[75],"spend":[77],"it.":[79],"Strong":[80],"that":[82,97,113],"incorrect":[84],"resulted":[85],"prediction":[88],"error":[89],"cost":[90],"fixation":[92],"durations.":[93],"Our":[94],"findings":[95,127],"suggest":[96],"for":[99],"can":[102],"be":[103],"made":[104],"based":[105],"analysis":[108],"statistics":[111],"these":[114],"guide":[116],"our":[118],"eyes":[119],"interrogate":[120],"at":[122],"very":[123],"short":[124],"timescales.":[125],"open":[128],"new":[129],"perspectives":[130],"reading":[132],"comprehension":[135],"illustrate":[137],"capability":[139],"modern":[141],"models":[143],"inform":[145],"understanding":[146],"processing.":[150]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":11},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-11-04T10:54:05.112534","created_date":"2022-06-17T00:00:00"}
