{"id":"https://openalex.org/W4233449958","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","title":"CARBON STARS","display_name":"CARBON STARS","publication_year":1998,"publication_date":"1998-09-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W4233449958","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S29882555","display_name":"Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics","issn_l":"0066-4146","issn":["0066-4146","1545-4282"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-a","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320373","host_organization_name":"Annual Reviews","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320373"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Annual Reviews"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"review","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5012575074","display_name":"George Wallerstein","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3416-8728","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3416-8728"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201448701","display_name":"University of Washington","ror":"https://ror.org/00cvxb145","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"George Wallerstein","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Astronomy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Astronomy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5083606927","display_name":"Gillian R. Knapp","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9259-1164","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9259-1164"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20089843","display_name":"Princeton University","ror":"https://ror.org/00hx57361","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Gillian R. Knapp","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544;"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544;","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.8255,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":227,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.71428571,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"36","issue":"1","first_page":"369","last_page":"433"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10039","display_name":"Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3103","display_name":"Astronomy and Astrophysics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10039","display_name":"Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies","score":1.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3103","display_name":"Astronomy and Astrophysics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12917","display_name":"Astronomy and Astrophysical Research","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3105","display_name":"Instrumentation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10026","display_name":"Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena","score":0.0,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3103","display_name":"Astronomy and Astrophysics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/31","display_name":"Physics and Astronomy"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/carbon-stars","display_name":"carbon stars","score":0.9990000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/absolute-magnitude","display_name":"absolute magnitude","score":0.9150000214576721},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stellar-radii","display_name":"stellar radii","score":0.8429999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/carbon-and-nitrogen-abundances","display_name":"carbon and nitrogen abundances","score":0.42800000309944153},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mass-loss","display_name":"mass loss","score":0.4959999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/asymptotic-giant-branch-stars","display_name":"asymptotic giant branch stars","score":0.9089999794960022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/r-star","display_name":"R stars","score":0.5849999785423279},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/miras","display_name":"MIRAS","score":0.9240000247955322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interstellar-medium-enrichment","display_name":"interstellar medium enrichment","score":0.6650000214576721},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/dust-mixtures","display_name":"dust mixtures","score":0.6209999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/helium-shell-flash","display_name":"helium shell flash","score":0.9760000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/magellanic-clouds","display_name":"Magellanic Clouds","score":0.7720000147819519}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.8670535087585449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C47371412","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130019","display_name":"Carbon star","level":3,"score":0.8445990085601807},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C44870925","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37547","display_name":"Astrophysics","level":1,"score":0.8055893182754517},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C150846664","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7602306","display_name":"Stars","level":2,"score":0.722261369228363},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181313176","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50089","display_name":"Asymptotic giant branch","level":3,"score":0.621833860874176},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1276947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333","display_name":"Astronomy","level":1,"score":0.49877166748046875},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5788528","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5042750","display_name":"Stellar mass loss","level":4,"score":0.4663713574409485},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C178075534","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6232","display_name":"T Tauri star","level":3,"score":0.4350167214870453},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C98444146","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q318","display_name":"Galaxy","level":2,"score":0.4305221438407898},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80518518","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q863936","display_name":"K-type main-sequence star","level":4,"score":0.42982760071754456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C110472602","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6472","display_name":"Stellar evolution","level":3,"score":0.4196540117263794},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C140205800","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5860","display_name":"Carbon fibers","level":3,"score":0.4133594334125519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C192562407","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228736","display_name":"Materials science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104779481","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50707","display_name":"Composite number","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159985019","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181790","display_name":"Composite material","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.369","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S29882555","display_name":"Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics","issn_l":"0066-4146","issn":["0066-4146","1545-4282"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-a","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320373","host_organization_name":"Annual Reviews","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320373"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Annual Reviews"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/13","score":0.5351999998092651,"display_name":"Climate action"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":174,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W85711916","https://openalex.org/W154498029","https://openalex.org/W1496972338","https://openalex.org/W1573376717","https://openalex.org/W1633563739","https://openalex.org/W1647173005","https://openalex.org/W1964058681","https://openalex.org/W1964647524","https://openalex.org/W1964829827","https://openalex.org/W1965917463","https://openalex.org/W1966238623","https://openalex.org/W1967018830","https://openalex.org/W1967298198","https://openalex.org/W1970622510","https://openalex.org/W1970824950","https://openalex.org/W1971693596","https://openalex.org/W1973817511","https://openalex.org/W1976194293","https://openalex.org/W1977082001","https://openalex.org/W1978888068","https://openalex.org/W1980130127","https://openalex.org/W1980246671","https://openalex.org/W1980406591","https://openalex.org/W1980563675","https://openalex.org/W1980785361","https://openalex.org/W1981010980","https://openalex.org/W1981413005","https://openalex.org/W1981710880","https://openalex.org/W1981722972","https://openalex.org/W1982046878","https://openalex.org/W1982080051","https://openalex.org/W1982666129","https://openalex.org/W1983475934","https://openalex.org/W1986143479","https://openalex.org/W1987953554","https://openalex.org/W1990418144","https://openalex.org/W1990518025","https://openalex.org/W1992222572","https://openalex.org/W1992660496","https://openalex.org/W1993300339","https://openalex.org/W1993585279","https://openalex.org/W1994978805","https://openalex.org/W1996215077","https://openalex.org/W1996777144","https://openalex.org/W1998614628","https://openalex.org/W1999225063","https://openalex.org/W2000003859","https://openalex.org/W2001079043","https://openalex.org/W2003300575","https://openalex.org/W2003304946","https://openalex.org/W2003328778","https://openalex.org/W2004199055","https://openalex.org/W2004562700","https://openalex.org/W2005033200","https://openalex.org/W2005184873","https://openalex.org/W2005618430","https://openalex.org/W2006062374","https://openalex.org/W2006487645","https://openalex.org/W2006869439","https://openalex.org/W2007262991","https://openalex.org/W2008612844","https://openalex.org/W2008740069","https://openalex.org/W2009908522","https://openalex.org/W2010036999","https://openalex.org/W2010494516","https://openalex.org/W2011639947","https://openalex.org/W2012363719","https://openalex.org/W2012632801","https://openalex.org/W2013237419","https://openalex.org/W2013529872","https://openalex.org/W2013607115","https://openalex.org/W2013781686","https://openalex.org/W2014045169","https://openalex.org/W2014889675","https://openalex.org/W2015605528","https://openalex.org/W2016293238","https://openalex.org/W2017402922","https://openalex.org/W2018176422","https://openalex.org/W2018609408","https://openalex.org/W2018859258","https://openalex.org/W2019203767","https://openalex.org/W2022419291","https://openalex.org/W2023393381","https://openalex.org/W2023395080","https://openalex.org/W2024886679","https://openalex.org/W2025035908","https://openalex.org/W2025209025","https://openalex.org/W2025496839","https://openalex.org/W2026118913","https://openalex.org/W2027041709","https://openalex.org/W2028670302","https://openalex.org/W2031487684","https://openalex.org/W2031603500","https://openalex.org/W2032522986","https://openalex.org/W2032785179","https://openalex.org/W2037944693","https://openalex.org/W2038884548","https://openalex.org/W2039369867","https://openalex.org/W2039534460","https://openalex.org/W2039790052","https://openalex.org/W2040898838","https://openalex.org/W2040957302","https://openalex.org/W2042487626","https://openalex.org/W2045146738","https://openalex.org/W2045201301","https://openalex.org/W2045417325","https://openalex.org/W2045433480","https://openalex.org/W2046393563","https://openalex.org/W2048153415","https://openalex.org/W2048275892","https://openalex.org/W2049918749","https://openalex.org/W2050195149","https://openalex.org/W2050243814","https://openalex.org/W2050900654","https://openalex.org/W2051341007","https://openalex.org/W2053779748","https://openalex.org/W2054212660","https://openalex.org/W2055738335","https://openalex.org/W2057459353","https://openalex.org/W2057596397","https://openalex.org/W2057843942","https://openalex.org/W2059567444","https://openalex.org/W2060623943","https://openalex.org/W2061311269","https://openalex.org/W2062116864","https://openalex.org/W2064809844","https://openalex.org/W2065963692","https://openalex.org/W2067504015","https://openalex.org/W2067542417","https://openalex.org/W2068269403","https://openalex.org/W2070136702","https://openalex.org/W2070922409","https://openalex.org/W2071612417","https://openalex.org/W2071965568","https://openalex.org/W2073801287","https://openalex.org/W2075906091","https://openalex.org/W2076981663","https://openalex.org/W2078352304","https://openalex.org/W2078936187","https://openalex.org/W2078979398","https://openalex.org/W2079773521","https://openalex.org/W2080523900","https://openalex.org/W2080906346","https://openalex.org/W2082715840","https://openalex.org/W2084033567","https://openalex.org/W2084058244","https://openalex.org/W2084102385","https://openalex.org/W2085392845","https://openalex.org/W2086622757","https://openalex.org/W2087069688","https://openalex.org/W2090331444","https://openalex.org/W2090647113","https://openalex.org/W2092201514","https://openalex.org/W2109353143","https://openalex.org/W2110317795","https://openalex.org/W2110779996","https://openalex.org/W2122287017","https://openalex.org/W2157716850","https://openalex.org/W2158211072","https://openalex.org/W2160335211","https://openalex.org/W2162425208","https://openalex.org/W2164503997","https://openalex.org/W2243740263","https://openalex.org/W2318861824","https://openalex.org/W3023981613","https://openalex.org/W3036325277","https://openalex.org/W3047237730","https://openalex.org/W3100741447","https://openalex.org/W4213213482","https://openalex.org/W4232276456","https://openalex.org/W4236157121","https://openalex.org/W4239016885","https://openalex.org/W4246053561","https://openalex.org/W4247002029"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7096240460","https://openalex.org/W2076981663","https://openalex.org/W1994895468","https://openalex.org/W121123282","https://openalex.org/W1674883421","https://openalex.org/W7131385368","https://openalex.org/W7099479232","https://openalex.org/W7131253751","https://openalex.org/W2049918749","https://openalex.org/W2007678570"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"\u25aa":[0],"Abstract":[1],"Absolute":[2],"magnitudes":[3],"are":[4,79,130,143,150,205],"estimated":[5],"for":[6,128,136],"carbon":[7,36,66,69,87,161,230],"stars":[8,37,42,70,78,113],"of":[9,29,35,55,103,160,178,180,186,218],"various":[10],"subtypes":[11],"in":[12,19,60,229],"the":[13,20,27,40,56,73,104,109,155,176,181,187,215,219],"Hipparcos":[14],"catalogue":[15],"and":[16,48,58,76,118,138,184,193,223],"as":[17,72],"found":[18],"Magellanic":[21],"Clouds.":[22],"Stellar":[23],"radii":[24],"fall":[25],"within":[26],"limits":[28],"2.4\u20134.7":[30],"AU.":[31],"The":[32,124,158],"chemical":[33],"composition":[34],"indicates":[38,52],"that":[39,53,148,198],"C-N":[41],"show":[43,147],"nearly":[44],"solar":[45],"C/H,":[46],"N/H,":[47],"12C/13C":[49],"ratios.":[50],"This":[51],"much":[54],"C":[57],"N":[59],"our":[61],"Galaxy":[62],"came":[63],"from":[64,83],"mass-losing":[65],"stars.":[67],"Special":[68],"such":[71],"C-R,":[74],"C-H,":[75],"dC":[77],"described.":[80],"Mass":[81],"loss":[82,126,164,192],"asymptotic":[84],"giant":[85],"branch":[86],"stars,":[88,140],"at":[89,167],"rates":[90,127,165],"up":[91],"to":[92,108,146,152,154,175,212,224],"several":[93],"\u00d7":[94],"10\u22125":[95],"M[Formula:":[96,170],"see":[97,171],"text]":[98,172],"year\u22121,":[99,173],"contributes":[100],"about":[101,131,168],"half":[102],"total":[105],"mass":[106,117,125,163,183,191],"return":[107],"interstellar":[110],"medium.":[111],"R":[112],"do":[114],"not":[115],"lose":[116],"may":[119],"be":[120,225],"carbon-rich":[121],"red":[122],"giants.":[123],"Miras":[129],"10":[132],"times":[133],"higher":[134],"than":[135],"SRb":[137],"Lb":[139],"whose":[141],"properties":[142],"similar":[144],"enough":[145],"they":[149,210],"likely":[151],"belong":[153],"same":[156],"population.":[157],"distribution":[159],"star":[162,231],"peaks":[166],"10\u22127":[169],"close":[174,188],"rate":[177],"growth":[179],"core":[182],"demonstrative":[185],"relationship":[189],"between":[190],"evolution.":[194,232],"Infrared":[195],"spectroscopy":[196],"shows":[197],"dust":[199],"mixtures":[200],"can":[201],"occur.":[202],"Detached":[203],"shells":[204],"seen":[206],"around":[207],"some":[208],"stars;":[209],"appear":[211],"form":[213],"on":[214],"time":[216],"scales":[217],"helium":[220],"shell":[221],"flashes":[222],"a":[226],"normal":[227],"occurrence":[228]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":15}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2022-05-12T00:00:00"}
