{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3203266641","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","title":"Machine learning classification of significant tornadoes and hail in the U.S. using ERA5 proximity soundings","display_name":"Machine learning classification of significant tornadoes and hail in the U.S. using ERA5 proximity soundings","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-10-07","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3203266641","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","mag":"3203266641"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S203100778","display_name":"Weather and Forecasting","issn_l":"0882-8156","issn":["0882-8156","1520-0434"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-2"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320260","host_organization_name":"American Meteorological Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320260"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Meteorological Society"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Weather and Forecasting","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000918990","display_name":"Vittorio A. Gensini","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6362-9197","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6362-9197"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102502594","display_name":"Northern Illinois University","ror":"https://ror.org/012wxa772","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Vittorio A. Gensini","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5028141755","display_name":"Cody Converse","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102502594","display_name":"Northern Illinois University","ror":"https://ror.org/012wxa772","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Cody Converse","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025764922","display_name":"Walker S. Ashley","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0816-3333","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0816-3333"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I102502594","display_name":"Northern Illinois University","ror":"https://ror.org/012wxa772","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Walker S. Ashley","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Geographic and Atmospheric Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I102502594"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040136908","display_name":"Mateusz Taszarek","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9578-5872","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9578-5872"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I194601409","display_name":"Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies","ror":"https://ror.org/04j91ny53","country_code":"US","type":"facility","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I194601409"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I8692664","display_name":"University of Oklahoma","ror":"https://ror.org/02aqsxs83","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I8692664"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mateusz Taszarek","raw_affiliation_strings":["Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Cooperative Institute for Mesoscale Meteorological Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I194601409","https://openalex.org/I8692664"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.1744,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":32,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.87816448,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":96,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10466","display_name":"Meteorological Phenomena and Simulations","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1902","display_name":"Atmospheric Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10466","display_name":"Meteorological Phenomena and Simulations","score":0.9984999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1902","display_name":"Atmospheric Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12125","display_name":"Aerospace and Aviation Technology","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11483","display_name":"Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones Research","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1902","display_name":"Atmospheric Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/19","display_name":"Earth and Planetary Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tornadoes","display_name":"tornadoes","score":0.8009999990463257},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hailstorms","display_name":"hailstorms","score":0.8460000157356262},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/era5-reanalysis","display_name":"ERA5 reanalysis","score":0.7839999794960022},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proximity-soundings","display_name":"proximity soundings","score":0.9229999780654907},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/vertical-profiles","display_name":"vertical profiles","score":0.5450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/random-forest-classification","display_name":"random forest classification","score":0.9200000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/storm-relative-helicity","display_name":"storm-relative helicity","score":0.984000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/nowcasting","display_name":"nowcasting","score":0.6389999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/severe-weather-forecasting","display_name":"severe weather forecasting","score":0.6340000033378601},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/feature-importance","display_name":"feature importance","score":0.6200000047683716}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190930322","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8081","display_name":"Tornado","level":2,"score":0.8800072073936462},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169258074","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q245748","display_name":"Random forest","level":2,"score":0.7874069213867188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187460315","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q741507","display_name":"Severe weather","level":3,"score":0.5645559430122375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781013037","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1433331","display_name":"Nowcasting","level":2,"score":0.563093364238739},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.533227264881134},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153294291","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25261","display_name":"Meteorology","level":1,"score":0.522158145904541},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161067210","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1464943","display_name":"Wind speed","level":2,"score":0.49250349402427673},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105306849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q81054","display_name":"Storm","level":2,"score":0.4703022837638855},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C5274069","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2285707","display_name":"Categorical variable","level":2,"score":0.45518064498901367},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2908647359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2625603","display_name":"Population","level":2,"score":0.4420314431190491},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.30619126558303833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.28186020255088806},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.156479150056839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1175/waf-d-21-0056.1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S203100778","display_name":"Weather and Forecasting","issn_l":"0882-8156","issn":["0882-8156","1520-0434"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-2"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320260","host_organization_name":"American Meteorological Society","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320260"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Meteorological Society"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Weather and Forecasting","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:noaa.stacks:noaa:69375","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/69375","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196172","display_name":"NOAA Institutional Repository","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Weather and Forecasting (2021)","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"score":0.5600000023841858,"display_name":"Climate action","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/13"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":99,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W298212978","https://openalex.org/W895491993","https://openalex.org/W1497725895","https://openalex.org/W1522513084","https://openalex.org/W1562353621","https://openalex.org/W1590976337","https://openalex.org/W1687072975","https://openalex.org/W1981924456","https://openalex.org/W1988160716","https://openalex.org/W1995480410","https://openalex.org/W2020208892","https://openalex.org/W2022545409","https://openalex.org/W2026805549","https://openalex.org/W2038627295","https://openalex.org/W2043372587","https://openalex.org/W2046599237","https://openalex.org/W2052998290","https://openalex.org/W2059206665","https://openalex.org/W2067907137","https://openalex.org/W2079246256","https://openalex.org/W2079726831","https://openalex.org/W2083078345","https://openalex.org/W2086038175","https://openalex.org/W2097894550","https://openalex.org/W2101234009","https://openalex.org/W2103624434","https://openalex.org/W2112445421","https://openalex.org/W2114820953","https://openalex.org/W2117179364","https://openalex.org/W2123987184","https://openalex.org/W2126403390","https://openalex.org/W2126975595","https://openalex.org/W2129888542","https://openalex.org/W2131760093","https://openalex.org/W2135175700","https://openalex.org/W2143426320","https://openalex.org/W2143481518","https://openalex.org/W2148847360","https://openalex.org/W2149218990","https://openalex.org/W2158466588","https://openalex.org/W2166189282","https://openalex.org/W2168508521","https://openalex.org/W2170641918","https://openalex.org/W2173251738","https://openalex.org/W2173944793","https://openalex.org/W2286485863","https://openalex.org/W2319186369","https://openalex.org/W2407955558","https://openalex.org/W2528344083","https://openalex.org/W2548766347","https://openalex.org/W2572756450","https://openalex.org/W2580528732","https://openalex.org/W2601923741","https://openalex.org/W2607216808","https://openalex.org/W2743153755","https://openalex.org/W2751439817","https://openalex.org/W2754272414","https://openalex.org/W2770594110","https://openalex.org/W2789448283","https://openalex.org/W2793534081","https://openalex.org/W2807535851","https://openalex.org/W2888139113","https://openalex.org/W2888319306","https://openalex.org/W2889020459","https://openalex.org/W2892741787","https://openalex.org/W2896467450","https://openalex.org/W2897562436","https://openalex.org/W2911964244","https://openalex.org/W2940998422","https://openalex.org/W2945435533","https://openalex.org/W2947707259","https://openalex.org/W2965901589","https://openalex.org/W2969309273","https://openalex.org/W2970058087","https://openalex.org/W2984597037","https://openalex.org/W2989751705","https://openalex.org/W2993088831","https://openalex.org/W2999615587","https://openalex.org/W3002878312","https://openalex.org/W3009289101","https://openalex.org/W3014703899","https://openalex.org/W3025786591","https://openalex.org/W3025949386","https://openalex.org/W3028302046","https://openalex.org/W3031884353","https://openalex.org/W3033714468","https://openalex.org/W3044059596","https://openalex.org/W3077522170","https://openalex.org/W3084247652","https://openalex.org/W3085164696","https://openalex.org/W3088949694","https://openalex.org/W3096640886","https://openalex.org/W3117081811","https://openalex.org/W3135540785","https://openalex.org/W3137927368","https://openalex.org/W6624164240","https://openalex.org/W6629779016","https://openalex.org/W6674875524","https://openalex.org/W6696347450"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2021681696","https://openalex.org/W2164297952","https://openalex.org/W1966007844","https://openalex.org/W2505893873","https://openalex.org/W1971891908","https://openalex.org/W2330558560","https://openalex.org/W2223837646","https://openalex.org/W4383341998","https://openalex.org/W73230170","https://openalex.org/W4385881843"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"Previous":[1],"studies":[2,253],"have":[3,18],"identified":[4],"environmental":[5],"characteristics":[6],"that":[7],"skillfully":[8],"discriminate":[9],"between":[10],"severe":[11,92],"and":[12,58,68,82,98,115,138,165,177,211,219,251],"significant-severe":[13,36,94],"weather":[14,250],"events,":[15],"but":[16],"they":[17],"largely":[19],"been":[20],"limited":[21],"by":[22,109],"sample":[23],"size":[24],"and/or":[25],"population":[26],"of":[27,35,206,224,227,249],"predictor":[28],"variables.":[29,73],"Given":[30],"the":[31,52,62,118,174,204,207,228,236],"heightened":[32],"societal":[33],"impacts":[34],"weather,":[37],"this":[38,243],"topic":[39],"was":[40,129,199],"revisited":[41],"using":[42],"over":[43],"150":[44],"000":[45],"ERA5":[46],"reanalysis-derived":[47],"vertical":[48],"profiles":[49],"extracted":[50],"at":[51,157,162],"grid-point":[53],"nearest\u2014and":[54],"just":[55],"prior":[56],"to\u2014tornado":[57],"hail":[59],"reports":[60,95],"during":[61],"period":[63],"1996\u20132019.":[64],"Profiles":[65],"were":[66,79,154,189],"quality-controlled":[67],"used":[69,200],"to":[70,87,131,179,191,201],"calculate":[71],"84":[72],"Several":[74],"machine":[75],"learning":[76],"classification":[77,102,128,150,260],"algorithms":[78],"trained,":[80],"tested,":[81],"cross-validated":[83,110],"on":[84],"these":[85],"data":[86],"assess":[88],"skill":[89,256],"in":[90,173,257],"predicting":[91],"or":[93],"for":[96,152,216,239],"tornadoes":[97,153],"hail.":[99],"Random":[100],"forest":[101,127,149,209,230,259],"outperformed":[103],"all":[104],"tested":[105],"methods":[106,137],"as":[107],"measured":[108],"critical":[111,213],"success":[112],"index":[113],"scores":[114],"area":[116],"under":[117],"receiver":[119],"operating":[120],"characteristic":[121],"curve":[122],"values.":[123],"In":[124],"addition,":[125],"random":[126,148,208,229,258],"found":[130,190],"be":[132,192],"more":[133],"reliable":[134],"than":[135],"other":[136],"exhibited":[139],"negligible":[140],"frequency":[141],"bias.":[142],"The":[143],"top":[144],"three":[145],"most":[146,193],"important":[147],"variables":[151],"wind":[155,160,187],"speed":[156,161],"500":[158],"hPa,":[159,164],"850":[163],"0\u2013500-m":[166],"storm-relative":[167,171],"helicity.":[168],"For":[169],"hail,":[170],"helicity":[172],"3\u20136":[175],"km":[176],"-10":[178],"-30":[180],"\u00b0C":[181],"layers,":[182],"along":[183],"with":[184],"0\u20136-km":[185],"bulk":[186],"shear,":[188],"important.":[194],"A":[195,221],"game":[196],"theoretic":[197],"approach":[198],"help":[202],"explain":[203],"output":[205],"classifiers":[210],"establish":[212],"feature":[214],"thresholds":[215],"operational":[217,240],"nowcasting":[218],"forecasting.":[220,241],"use":[222],"case":[223],"spatial":[225],"applicability":[226],"model":[231],"is":[232],"also":[233],"presented,":[234],"demonstrating":[235],"potential":[237],"utility":[238],"Overall,":[242],"research":[244],"supports":[245],"a":[246],"growing":[247],"number":[248],"climate":[252],"finding":[254],"admirable":[255],"applications.":[261]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-10-16T09:59:22.235173","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}
