{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3133689212","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2103.03798","title":"Training a First-Order Theorem Prover from Synthetic Data","display_name":"Training a First-Order Theorem Prover from Synthetic Data","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-03-05","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3133689212","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2103.03798","mag":"3133689212"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2103.03798","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2103.03798","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.03798","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},"volume":null,"type":"preprint","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["arxiv","datacite"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.03798","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5046302720","display_name":"Vlad Firoiu","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Firoiu, Vlad","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5069402485","display_name":"Eser Ayg\u00fcn","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3141-6730","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3141-6730"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Aygun, Eser","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002469541","display_name":"Ankit Anand","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8832-3212","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8832-3212","https://orcid.org/0009-0000-6969-4993"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Anand, Ankit","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5024581585","display_name":"Zafarali Ahmed","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2339-6688","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2339-6688"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Ahmed, Zafarali","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5067483843","display_name":"Xavier Glorot","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6729-2189","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6729-2189"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Glorot, Xavier","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5110938957","display_name":"Laurent Orseau","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0857-4039","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0857-4039"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Orseau, Laurent","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Zhang, Lei","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Zhang, Lei","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5065836447","display_name":"Doina Precup","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4718-9851","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4718-9851"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Precup, Doina","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027938141","display_name":"Shibl Mourad","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2040-7011","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0002-2040-7011"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1291425158","display_name":"Google (United States)","ror":"https://ror.org/00njsd438","country_code":"US","type":"company","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158","https://openalex.org/I4210128969"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Mourad, Shibl","raw_affiliation_strings":["Google,,,,,"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Google,,,,,","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1291425158"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":15,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10126","display_name":"Logic, programming, and type systems","score":0.5810999870300293,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10126","display_name":"Logic, programming, and type systems","score":0.5810999870300293,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1712","display_name":"Software"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11010","display_name":"Logic, Reasoning, and Knowledge","score":0.06800000369548798,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13904","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence Applications","score":0.06419999897480011,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/automated-theorem-proving","display_name":"automated theorem proving","score":0.9279999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/first-order-logic","display_name":"first-order logic","score":0.7910000085830688},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/synthetic-training-data","display_name":"synthetic training data","score":0.6389999985694885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/e-prover","display_name":"E prover","score":0.6420000195503235},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/transfer-learning","display_name":"transfer learning","score":0.5189999938011169},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/limited-training-data","display_name":"limited training data","score":0.5299999713897705}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C159718280","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5526353","display_name":"Gas meter prover","level":3,"score":0.7807239294052124},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C206880738","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q431667","display_name":"Automated theorem proving","level":2,"score":0.7759650945663452},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5929713845252991},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167729594","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17736","display_name":"Axiom","level":2,"score":0.5894431471824646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C51632099","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3985153","display_name":"Training set","level":2,"score":0.5305920839309692},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5154420137405396},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2778120072","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2858150","display_name":"Aside","level":2,"score":0.46226632595062256},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26517878","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q228039","display_name":"Key (lock)","level":2,"score":0.4596845805644989},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50644808","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192776","display_name":"Artificial neural network","level":2,"score":0.4187150299549103},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C80444323","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2878974","display_name":"Theoretical computer science","level":1,"score":0.3853455185890198},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.3470029830932617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.33598077297210693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C108710211","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11538","display_name":"Mathematical proof","level":2,"score":0.2583422362804413},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.23597094416618347},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.09397077560424805},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C124952713","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8242","display_name":"Literature","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142362112","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q735","display_name":"Art","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2524010","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8087","display_name":"Geometry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2103.03798","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2103.03798","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.03798","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},{"id":"mag:3133689212","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.03798.pdf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","raw_type":null},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2103.03798","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2103.03798","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2103.03798","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2103.03798","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2103.03798","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2103.03798","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3133689212.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3133689212.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":22,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1781094","https://openalex.org/W1554618854","https://openalex.org/W1569963244","https://openalex.org/W1665214252","https://openalex.org/W1772968073","https://openalex.org/W1807555267","https://openalex.org/W2121594619","https://openalex.org/W2128174349","https://openalex.org/W2588018425","https://openalex.org/W2626778328","https://openalex.org/W2902907165","https://openalex.org/W2946559657","https://openalex.org/W2951286161","https://openalex.org/W2963577640","https://openalex.org/W2975141838","https://openalex.org/W3001279689","https://openalex.org/W3030163527","https://openalex.org/W3083835029","https://openalex.org/W3101966195","https://openalex.org/W3103412473","https://openalex.org/W3113177135","https://openalex.org/W3128644037"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3036819305","https://openalex.org/W3103412473","https://openalex.org/W2963560424","https://openalex.org/W7027666545","https://openalex.org/W4405956709","https://openalex.org/W3168849530","https://openalex.org/W8060374","https://openalex.org/W4225882755","https://openalex.org/W7077048566","https://openalex.org/W3087553007"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"A":[0],"major":[1],"challenge":[2],"in":[3,22,73],"applying":[4],"machine":[5],"learning":[6,26],"to":[7,56,83],"automated":[8],"theorem":[9],"proving":[10],"is":[11,18],"the":[12,66,84,89],"scarcity":[13],"of":[14,96],"training":[15,23,39],"data,":[16],"which":[17],"a":[19,58],"key":[20],"ingredient":[21],"successful":[24],"deep":[25],"models.":[27],"To":[28],"tackle":[29],"this":[30,70],"problem,":[31],"we":[32],"propose":[33],"an":[34],"approach":[35],"that":[36],"relies":[37],"on":[38,69],"purely":[40],"with":[41],"synthetically":[42],"generated":[43],"theorems,":[44],"without":[45,99],"any":[46],"human":[47],"data":[48,72],"aside":[49],"from":[50,88],"axioms.":[51],"We":[52],"use":[53],"these":[54],"theorems":[55,87],"train":[57],"neurally-guided":[59],"saturation-based":[60],"prover.":[61],"Our":[62],"neural":[63],"prover":[64],"outperforms":[65],"state-of-the-art":[67],"E-prover":[68],"synthetic":[71],"both":[74],"time":[75],"and":[76,79],"search":[77],"steps,":[78],"shows":[80],"significant":[81],"transfer":[82],"unseen":[85],"human-written":[86],"TPTP":[90],"library,":[91],"where":[92],"it":[93],"solves":[94],"72\\%":[95],"first-order":[97],"problems":[98],"equality.":[100]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2021-03-15T00:00:00"}