{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3132575986","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","title":"The Challenges of Machine Learning and Their Economic Implications","display_name":"The Challenges of Machine Learning and Their Economic Implications","publication_year":2021,"publication_date":"2021-02-25","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3132575986","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","mag":"3132575986","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33668772","pmcid":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7996274"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23030275","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/3/275/pdf?version=1616416254","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","doaj","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"gold","oa_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/3/275/pdf?version=1616416254","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5151868636","display_name":"Pol Borrellas i Mart\u00edn","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4387155155","display_name":"Esade","ror":"https://ror.org/02d9gec76","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4387155155","https://openalex.org/I5593406"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I5593406","display_name":"Universitat Ramon Llull","ror":"https://ror.org/04p9k2z50","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I5593406"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Pol Borrellas","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Operations, Innovation and Data Sciences at ESADE, Universitat Ramon Llull, ESADE, 08022 Barcelona, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Operations, Innovation and Data Sciences at ESADE, Universitat Ramon Llull, ESADE, 08022 Barcelona, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4387155155","https://openalex.org/I5593406"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5082357359","display_name":"Irene Unceta","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7422-1493","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7422-1493"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4387155155","display_name":"Esade","ror":"https://ror.org/02d9gec76","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4387155155","https://openalex.org/I5593406"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I5593406","display_name":"Universitat Ramon Llull","ror":"https://ror.org/04p9k2z50","country_code":"ES","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I5593406"]}],"countries":["ES"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Irene Unceta","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Operations, Innovation and Data Sciences at ESADE, Universitat Ramon Llull, ESADE, 08022 Barcelona, Spain"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Operations, Innovation and Data Sciences at ESADE, Universitat Ramon Llull, ESADE, 08022 Barcelona, Spain","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4387155155","https://openalex.org/I5593406"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5082357359"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4387155155","https://openalex.org/I5593406"],"apc_list":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1944},"apc_paid":{"value":1800,"currency":"CHF","value_usd":1944},"fwci":4.0638,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":18,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.93839004,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"23","issue":"3","first_page":"275","last_page":"275"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.9740999937057495,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10883","display_name":"Ethics and Social Impacts of AI","score":0.9740999937057495,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3311","display_name":"Safety Research"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13364","display_name":"Digitalization, Law, and Regulation","score":0.017899999395012856,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12026","display_name":"Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)","score":0.0019000000320374966,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/interpretability","display_name":"interpretability","score":0.7160000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/algorithmic-fairness","display_name":"algorithmic fairness","score":0.9490000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ai-safety","display_name":"AI safety","score":0.6309999823570251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/data-privacy","display_name":"data privacy","score":0.7860000133514404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-welfare-welfare-economics","display_name":"social welfare (welfare economics)","score":0.8640000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tort-law","display_name":"tort law","score":0.7400000095367432},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/anti-discrimination-law","display_name":"anti-discrimination law","score":0.9890000224113464},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/market-incentives","display_name":"market incentives","score":0.6269999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-policy","display_name":"public policy","score":0.5609999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/economic-impact-of-ai","display_name":"economic impact of AI","score":0.5899999737739563}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2781067378","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q17027399","display_name":"Interpretability","level":2,"score":0.900353193283081},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.6305256485939026},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.5340567827224731},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105339364","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2297740","display_name":"Software deployment","level":2,"score":0.5135093331336975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C200635333","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q158970","display_name":"Tort","level":3,"score":0.512820303440094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.48554298281669617},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C536738050","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3249071","display_name":"Social Welfare","level":2,"score":0.4794532358646393},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C112930515","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4389547","display_name":"Risk analysis (engineering)","level":1,"score":0.4011729061603546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.3271794319152832},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.23980996012687683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.19214940071105957},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.12386184930801392},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.10037317872047424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777834853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96776939","display_name":"Liability","level":2,"score":0.08846285939216614},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111919701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9135","display_name":"Operating system","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10138342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43015","display_name":"Finance","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":4,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23030275","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/3/275/pdf?version=1616416254","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:7996274","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/7996274","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel)","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmid:33668772","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33668772","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy (Basel, Switzerland)","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:doaj.org/article:5dcb992c3c7e43d090b288ce96464a3b","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doaj.org/article/5dcb992c3c7e43d090b288ce96464a3b","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401280","display_name":"DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":null,"host_organization_name":null,"host_organization_lineage":[],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-sa","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Entropy, Vol 23, Iss 3, p 275 (2021)","raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3390/e23030275","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3390/e23030275","pdf_url":"https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/23/3/275/pdf?version=1616416254","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S195231649","display_name":"Entropy","issn_l":"1099-4300","issn":["1099-4300"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-2","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310310987","host_organization_name":"Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310310987"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Entropy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8","display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","score":0.48510000109672546},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions","score":0.47620001435279846}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3132575986.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3132575986.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":95,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W5070786","https://openalex.org/W74030061","https://openalex.org/W86985864","https://openalex.org/W277238768","https://openalex.org/W581665006","https://openalex.org/W842190952","https://openalex.org/W1473189865","https://openalex.org/W1516927529","https://openalex.org/W1606251440","https://openalex.org/W1787224781","https://openalex.org/W1977655452","https://openalex.org/W1984363873","https://openalex.org/W2003572022","https://openalex.org/W2012218966","https://openalex.org/W2027595342","https://openalex.org/W2033472483","https://openalex.org/W2047221353","https://openalex.org/W2051267297","https://openalex.org/W2061933243","https://openalex.org/W2074500080","https://openalex.org/W2087015022","https://openalex.org/W2095932468","https://openalex.org/W2099419573","https://openalex.org/W2111547563","https://openalex.org/W2138178898","https://openalex.org/W2145161351","https://openalex.org/W2164706250","https://openalex.org/W2164930262","https://openalex.org/W2168729696","https://openalex.org/W2180612164","https://openalex.org/W2241171127","https://openalex.org/W2282821441","https://openalex.org/W2342408547","https://openalex.org/W2344608465","https://openalex.org/W2371804352","https://openalex.org/W2418098761","https://openalex.org/W2439568532","https://openalex.org/W2461943168","https://openalex.org/W2473418344","https://openalex.org/W2497320330","https://openalex.org/W2514316310","https://openalex.org/W2516574342","https://openalex.org/W2529670628","https://openalex.org/W2533270069","https://openalex.org/W2535690855","https://openalex.org/W2543774860","https://openalex.org/W2546571074","https://openalex.org/W2581082771","https://openalex.org/W2584805976","https://openalex.org/W2585169518","https://openalex.org/W2594475271","https://openalex.org/W2594877703","https://openalex.org/W2603766943","https://openalex.org/W2617350882","https://openalex.org/W2618851150","https://openalex.org/W2619904157","https://openalex.org/W2670253439","https://openalex.org/W2757528734","https://openalex.org/W2765146466","https://openalex.org/W2766046864","https://openalex.org/W2773446523","https://openalex.org/W2773946056","https://openalex.org/W2774977638","https://openalex.org/W2808980893","https://openalex.org/W2811973125","https://openalex.org/W2887603965","https://openalex.org/W2896215772","https://openalex.org/W2898620199","https://openalex.org/W2906311950","https://openalex.org/W2913039310","https://openalex.org/W2914897181","https://openalex.org/W2919115771","https://openalex.org/W2945295328","https://openalex.org/W2957191877","https://openalex.org/W2962763344","https://openalex.org/W2963742154","https://openalex.org/W2968231730","https://openalex.org/W3000716014","https://openalex.org/W3006210081","https://openalex.org/W3014109009","https://openalex.org/W3020804303","https://openalex.org/W3035616549","https://openalex.org/W3048209079","https://openalex.org/W3094892085","https://openalex.org/W3121588992","https://openalex.org/W3121683006","https://openalex.org/W3123374861","https://openalex.org/W3124443940","https://openalex.org/W3124463999","https://openalex.org/W4205228770","https://openalex.org/W4256565920","https://openalex.org/W4302546703","https://openalex.org/W4308542987","https://openalex.org/W4387436653","https://openalex.org/W6988977658"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7171720006","https://openalex.org/W4413024567","https://openalex.org/W4407759044","https://openalex.org/W4390151798","https://openalex.org/W3141860791","https://openalex.org/W4322754167","https://openalex.org/W7045346913","https://openalex.org/W4385763689","https://openalex.org/W3031711027","https://openalex.org/W4408891442"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,112],"deployment":[1],"of":[2,16,19,62,67,71,82,88,114,127,147,167],"machine":[3,63,89,138],"learning":[4,90,139],"models":[5,24,91,143],"is":[6,120],"expected":[7,159],"to":[8,75,122,136,141,160,163],"bring":[9],"several":[10],"benefits.":[11],"Nevertheless,":[12],"as":[13],"a":[14,78,145],"result":[15],"the":[17,20,57,69,85,165],"complexity":[18],"ecosystem":[21],"in":[22,103],"which":[23,104],"are":[25,99,110,158],"generally":[26],"trained":[27],"and":[28,43,59,117,129,149],"deployed,":[29],"this":[30,72],"technology":[31],"also":[32],"raises":[33],"concerns":[34],"regarding":[35],"its":[36],"(1)":[37],"interpretability,":[38],"(2)":[39],"fairness,":[40],"(3)":[41],"safety,":[42],"(4)":[44],"privacy.":[45],"These":[46,156],"issues":[47],"can":[48],"have":[49],"substantial":[50],"economic":[51],"implications":[52],"because":[53],"they":[54],"may":[55],"hinder":[56],"development":[58],"mass":[60],"adoption":[61],"learning.":[64],"In":[65,101],"light":[66],"this,":[68],"purpose":[70],"paper":[73],"was":[74],"determine,":[76],"from":[77],"positive":[79],"economics":[80],"point":[81],"view,":[83],"whether":[84],"free":[86],"use":[87],"maximizes":[92,152],"aggregate":[93,153],"social":[94,154],"welfare":[95],"or,":[96],"alternatively,":[97],"regulations":[98],"required.":[100],"cases":[102],"restrictions":[105],"should":[106],"be":[107,161],"enacted,":[108],"policies":[109],"proposed.":[111],"adaptation":[113],"current":[115],"tort":[116],"anti-discrimination":[118],"laws":[119],"found":[121],"guarantee":[123],"an":[124],"optimal":[125],"level":[126],"interpretability":[128],"fairness.":[130],"Additionally,":[131],"existing":[132],"market":[133],"solutions":[134],"appear":[135],"incentivize":[137],"operators":[140],"equip":[142],"with":[144],"degree":[146],"security":[148],"privacy":[150],"that":[151],"welfare.":[155],"findings":[157],"valuable":[162],"inform":[164],"design":[166],"efficient":[168],"public":[169],"policies.":[170]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-10-28T10:33:24.094632","created_date":"2021-03-01T00:00:00"}
