{"id":"https://openalex.org/W3011988020","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","title":"The Low Earth Orbit Satellite Population and Impacts of the SpaceX Starlink Constellation","display_name":"The Low Earth Orbit Satellite Population and Impacts of the SpaceX Starlink Constellation","publication_year":2020,"publication_date":"2020-04-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W3011988020","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","mag":"3011988020"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","pdf_url":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210175824","display_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","issn_l":"2041-8205","issn":["2041-8205","2041-8213"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-a","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","norway-2","oarl","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320083","host_organization_name":"IOP Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320083","https://openalex.org/P4310311669"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IOP Publishing","Institute of Physics"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["arxiv","crossref","datacite","doaj"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"bronze","oa_url":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Jonathan C. McDowell","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7093-295X","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7093-295X"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210124175","display_name":"Center for Astrophysics Harvard & Smithsonian","ror":"https://ror.org/03c3r2d17","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I103187081","https://openalex.org/I136199984","https://openalex.org/I4210124175"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Jonathan C. McDowell","raw_affiliation_strings":["Center for Astrophysics \u2223 Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; jcm@cfa.harvard.edu"],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7093-295X","affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Center for Astrophysics \u2223 Harvard & Smithsonian, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA; jcm@cfa.harvard.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210124175"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4210124175"],"apc_list":{"value":2400,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2400},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":17.6125,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":541,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99615134,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"892","issue":"2","first_page":"L36","last_page":"L36"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11963","display_name":"Impact of Light on Environment and Health","score":0.6855000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2306","display_name":"Global and Planetary Change"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11963","display_name":"Impact of Light on Environment and Health","score":0.6855000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2306","display_name":"Global and Planetary Change"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/23","display_name":"Environmental Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11701","display_name":"Space Satellite Systems and Control","score":0.2590000033378601,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2202","display_name":"Aerospace Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12717","display_name":"Space exploration and regulation","score":0.011300000362098217,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mega-constellations","display_name":"mega-constellations","score":0.9150000214576721},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/satellite-brightness","display_name":"satellite brightness","score":0.6330000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/naked-eye-visibility","display_name":"naked-eye visibility","score":0.7300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ground-based-astronomy","display_name":"ground-based astronomy","score":0.5149999856948853},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/light-pollution","display_name":"light pollution","score":0.7260000109672546}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C19269812","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26540","display_name":"Satellite","level":2,"score":0.7195000052452087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777298776","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164160","display_name":"Twilight","level":2,"score":0.6258999705314636},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70352696","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8928","display_name":"Constellation","level":2,"score":0.5625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62649853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199687","display_name":"Remote sensing","level":1,"score":0.532800018787384},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2908647359","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2625603","display_name":"Population","level":2,"score":0.5311999917030334},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C122523270","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34027","display_name":"Latitude","level":2,"score":0.49779999256134033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C196644772","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3884964","display_name":"Orbit (dynamics)","level":2,"score":0.4948999881744385},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3018325918","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q663611","display_name":"Low earth orbit","level":3,"score":0.4830999970436096},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779784338","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q967145","display_name":"Satellite constellation","level":3,"score":0.47450000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71427050","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1348808","display_name":"Earth's orbit","level":3,"score":0.4131999909877777},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C204323151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q905424","display_name":"Range (aeronautics)","level":2,"score":0.39959999918937683},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2989135121","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1349167","display_name":"Ground station","level":3,"score":0.3939000070095062},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13280743","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131089","display_name":"Geodesy","level":1,"score":0.3926999866962433},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987528665","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q854845","display_name":"Earth observation satellite","level":3,"score":0.3862999975681305},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C92328372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q746711","display_name":"Polar orbit","level":3,"score":0.37700000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C153294291","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q25261","display_name":"Meteorology","level":1,"score":0.3765000104904175},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2991837008","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42530","display_name":"Low latitude","level":3,"score":0.367000013589859},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127313418","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1069","display_name":"Geology","level":0,"score":0.3619000017642975},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154978347","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1579577","display_name":"Geocentric orbit","level":3,"score":0.351500004529953},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26148502","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2488752","display_name":"Earth (classical element)","level":2,"score":0.3447999954223633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C116403925","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q162219","display_name":"Ionosphere","level":2,"score":0.3310000002384186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199635899","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6500960","display_name":"Earth's magnetic field","level":3,"score":0.3255999982357025},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39432304","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q188847","display_name":"Environmental science","level":0,"score":0.31450000405311584},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779613214","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1153471","display_name":"Night sky","level":2,"score":0.30730000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993248092","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q60670","display_name":"High latitude","level":3,"score":0.3043000102043152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199301463","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218414","display_name":"Medium Earth orbit","level":4,"score":0.30169999599456787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C65440619","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q177974","display_name":"Atmosphere (unit)","level":2,"score":0.28679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107768556","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q302660","display_name":"Orbit determination","level":3,"score":0.2773999869823456},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C1276947","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q333","display_name":"Astronomy","level":1,"score":0.27000001072883606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C189069379","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q218124","display_name":"Ground track","level":4,"score":0.26460000872612},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C135692309","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q111124","display_name":"Square (algebra)","level":2,"score":0.2565000057220459},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41479618","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3883775","display_name":"Local time","level":2,"score":0.25200000405311584}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","pdf_url":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210175824","display_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","issn_l":"2041-8205","issn":["2041-8205","2041-8213"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-a","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","norway-2","oarl","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320083","host_organization_name":"IOP Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320083","https://openalex.org/P4310311669"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IOP Publishing","Institute of Physics"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:arXiv.org:2003.07446","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://arxiv.org/abs/2003.07446","pdf_url":"https://arxiv.org/pdf/2003.07446","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"text"},{"id":"doi:10.48550/arxiv.2003.07446","doi":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2003.07446","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2003.07446","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400194","display_name":"arXiv (Cornell University)","issn_l":"2331-8422","issn":["2331-8422"],"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I205783295","host_organization_name":"Cornell University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I205783295"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article-journal"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","doi":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016","pdf_url":"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ab8016/pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4210175824","display_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","issn_l":"2041-8205","issn":["2041-8205","2041-8213"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":true,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","doaj","dongbi-a","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","norway-2","oarl","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320083","host_organization_name":"IOP Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320083","https://openalex.org/P4310311669"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["IOP Publishing","Institute of Physics"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"The Astrophysical Journal Letters","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G1390571956","display_name":null,"funder_award_id":"NAS803060","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306101","funder_display_name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306101","display_name":"National Aeronautics and Space Administration","ror":"https://ror.org/027ka1x80"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3011988020.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W3011988020.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":16,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W2014435427","https://openalex.org/W2015380206","https://openalex.org/W2098893304","https://openalex.org/W2150375650","https://openalex.org/W2800887248","https://openalex.org/W2810161522","https://openalex.org/W2903089033","https://openalex.org/W2918029340","https://openalex.org/W3000990043","https://openalex.org/W3009989658","https://openalex.org/W3011302549","https://openalex.org/W3013991793","https://openalex.org/W3092214725","https://openalex.org/W3105245647","https://openalex.org/W3124878469","https://openalex.org/W3144872573"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4200156983","https://openalex.org/W3009989658","https://openalex.org/W4414154849","https://openalex.org/W4288925136","https://openalex.org/W4297437473","https://openalex.org/W4396835640","https://openalex.org/W7124744345","https://openalex.org/W4392678356","https://openalex.org/W4400024436","https://openalex.org/W3088964854"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"I":[1,70],"discuss":[2],"the":[3,14,25,29,64,72,92,109,119,122],"current":[4],"low":[5,126],"Earth":[6,30],"orbit":[7],"artificial":[8],"satellite":[9],"population":[10],"and":[11,44,63,86,90],"show":[12],"that":[13],"proposed":[15],"\u201cmegaconstellation\u201d":[16],"of":[17,28,41,75,81,84,88,94,106,121,136,139],"circa":[18],"12,000":[19],"Starlink":[20],"Internet":[21],"satellites":[22,56,77,110,140],"would":[23],"dominate":[24],"lower":[26,103],"part":[27],"orbit,":[31],"below":[32],"600":[33],"km,":[34],"with":[35],"a":[36,79],"latitude-dependent":[37],"areal":[38],"number":[39,74],"density":[40],"between":[42],"0.005":[43],"0.01":[45],"objects":[46],"per":[47],"square":[48],"degree":[49],"at":[50,102,125,130,144,149],"airmass":[51],"<2.":[52],"Such":[53],"large,":[54],"low-altitude":[55],"appear":[57],"visually":[58],"bright":[59],"to":[60,146],"ground":[61],"observers,":[62],"initial":[65],"Starlinks":[66],"are":[67],"naked-eye":[68,147],"objects.":[69],"model":[71],"expected":[73],"illuminated":[76,114],"as":[78],"function":[80],"latitude,":[82],"time":[83,87],"year,":[85],"night":[89],"summarize":[91],"range":[93],"possible":[95],"consequences":[96],"for":[97,115],"ground-based":[98],"astronomy.":[99],"In":[100],"winter":[101],"latitudes":[104,132],"typical":[105],"major":[107],"observatories,":[108],"will":[111],"not":[112],"be":[113,142],"six":[116],"hours":[117],"in":[118],"middle":[120],"night.":[123],"However,":[124],"elevations":[127],"near":[128],"twilight":[129],"intermediate":[131],"(45\u00b0\u201355\u00b0,":[133],"e.g.,":[134],"much":[135],"Europe)":[137],"hundreds":[138],"may":[141],"visible":[143],"once":[145],"observers":[148],"dark":[150],"sites.":[151]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":85},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":107},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":95},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":90},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":74},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":58},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":31},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2020-03-23T00:00:00"}
