{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2918366161","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","title":"Safer than the average human driver (who is less safe than me)? Examining a popular safety benchmark for self-driving cars","display_name":"Safer than the average human driver (who is less safe than me)? Examining a popular safety benchmark for self-driving cars","publication_year":2019,"publication_date":"2019-02-28","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2918366161","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","mag":"2918366161","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31235236"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84525459","display_name":"Journal of Safety Research","issn_l":"0022-4375","issn":["0022-4375","1879-1247"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","doyens","jufo-2","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Safety Research","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027486601","display_name":"Michael A. Nees","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2313-2295","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2313-2295"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I184759092","display_name":"Lafayette College","ror":"https://ror.org/036n0x007","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I184759092"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Michael A. Nees","raw_affiliation_strings":["Lafayette College, Department of Psychology, Oechsle Hall. 350 Hamilton Street, Easton, PA 18042, United States. Electronic address: neesm@lafayette.edu","Lafayette College, Department of Psychology, Oechsle Hall. 350 Hamilton Street, Easton, PA 18042, United States"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Lafayette College, Department of Psychology, Oechsle Hall. 350 Hamilton Street, Easton, PA 18042, United States. Electronic address: neesm@lafayette.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184759092"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Lafayette College, Department of Psychology, Oechsle Hall. 350 Hamilton Street, Easton, PA 18042, United States","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184759092"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5027486601"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I184759092"],"apc_list":{"value":2000,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2000},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":9.1044,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":59,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.9790197,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"69","issue":null,"first_page":"61","last_page":"68"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10525","display_name":"Human-Automation Interaction and Safety","score":0.9848999977111816,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10525","display_name":"Human-Automation Interaction and Safety","score":0.9848999977111816,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3207","display_name":"Social Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11099","display_name":"Autonomous Vehicle Technology and Safety","score":0.0044999998062849045,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2203","display_name":"Automotive Engineering"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10370","display_name":"Traffic and Road Safety","score":0.00419999985024333,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2213","display_name":"Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/22","display_name":"Engineering"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/autonomous-vehicles","display_name":"autonomous vehicles","score":0.984000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/better-than-average-effect","display_name":"better-than-average effect","score":0.7519999742507935},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/safety-benchmark","display_name":"safety benchmark","score":0.5249999761581421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-acceptance-of-automation","display_name":"public acceptance of automation","score":0.6169999837875366},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/vehicle-automation","display_name":"vehicle automation","score":0.4399999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/risk-perception","display_name":"risk perception","score":0.32600000500679016}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776654903","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2601463","display_name":"SAFER","level":2,"score":0.9094342589378357},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3017944768","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1450463","display_name":"Poison control","level":2,"score":0.7409300208091736},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166735990","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1750812","display_name":"Human factors and ergonomics","level":3,"score":0.6716064214706421},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C187155963","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q629029","display_name":"Occupational safety and health","level":2,"score":0.6638877391815186},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190385971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q373494","display_name":"Injury prevention","level":3,"score":0.6610751152038574},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C526869908","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3298118","display_name":"Suicide prevention","level":3,"score":0.6050640940666199},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C22212356","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q775325","display_name":"Transport engineering","level":1,"score":0.4963412880897522},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185798385","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1161707","display_name":"Benchmark (surveying)","level":2,"score":0.4487985372543335},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.44614994525909424},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C38652104","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3510521","display_name":"Computer security","level":1,"score":0.3917888104915619},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C545542383","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2751242","display_name":"Medical emergency","level":1,"score":0.37349820137023926},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.31959962844848633},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.21630769968032837},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C205649164","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1071","display_name":"Geography","level":0,"score":0.0606597363948822},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C13280743","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131089","display_name":"Geodesy","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C142724271","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7208","display_name":"Pathology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D000063","descriptor_name":"Accidents, Traffic","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D000328","descriptor_name":"Adult","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D001290","descriptor_name":"Attitude","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001331","descriptor_name":"Automation","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001334","descriptor_name":"Automobile Driving","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D001336","descriptor_name":"Automobiles","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D005260","descriptor_name":"Female","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008297","descriptor_name":"Male","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008875","descriptor_name":"Middle Aged","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D011996","descriptor_name":"Records","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012449","descriptor_name":"Safety","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D018570","descriptor_name":"Risk Assessment","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D019985","descriptor_name":"Benchmarking","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2019.02.002","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S84525459","display_name":"Journal of Safety Research","issn_l":"0022-4375","issn":["0022-4375","1879-1247"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","doyens","jufo-2","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320990","host_organization_name":"Elsevier BV","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320990"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Elsevier BV"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Safety Research","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","doi":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},{"id":"pmid:31235236","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31235236","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of safety research","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:4601F-8B7-B9C","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://doi.org/10.31234/OSF.IO/8KPYR","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401687","display_name":"PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"preprint"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:4eef5816-8d57-4197-bcf3-9479cfbef5b2","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://osf.io/z4t72","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401127","display_name":"OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Project"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:93181e6b-13fe-4ea4-b26c-2568d4c2c938","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://osf.io/8kpyr","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401687","display_name":"PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Preprint"},{"id":"pmh:oai:share.osf.io:E0036-455-D2E","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://api.osf.io/v2/nodes/z4t72/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401127","display_name":"OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I2799848540","host_organization_name":"Center for Open Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2799848540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"project"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","doi":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/8kpyr","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"posted-content"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/3","score":0.4000000059604645,"display_name":"Good health and well-being"}],"study_designs":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/study-designs/observational-study","display_name":"Observational Study"}],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320312874","display_name":"Lafayette College","ror":"https://ror.org/036n0x007"}],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":38,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1972033526","https://openalex.org/W1982314020","https://openalex.org/W1995047280","https://openalex.org/W2015898013","https://openalex.org/W2031225564","https://openalex.org/W2032117873","https://openalex.org/W2033938851","https://openalex.org/W2080866342","https://openalex.org/W2085131691","https://openalex.org/W2092360311","https://openalex.org/W2137872373","https://openalex.org/W2143074722","https://openalex.org/W2196964148","https://openalex.org/W2286247980","https://openalex.org/W2471645431","https://openalex.org/W2519133569","https://openalex.org/W2525936901","https://openalex.org/W2550863771","https://openalex.org/W2576845151","https://openalex.org/W2578647877","https://openalex.org/W2594057388","https://openalex.org/W2747470660","https://openalex.org/W2760409427","https://openalex.org/W2772636811","https://openalex.org/W2790253980","https://openalex.org/W2801173352","https://openalex.org/W2801188116","https://openalex.org/W2804254948","https://openalex.org/W2891539364","https://openalex.org/W2893238233","https://openalex.org/W2893576260","https://openalex.org/W2904087465","https://openalex.org/W2908255381","https://openalex.org/W4230519770","https://openalex.org/W4237513721","https://openalex.org/W4243342770","https://openalex.org/W4294343482","https://openalex.org/W6756931916"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3012868412","https://openalex.org/W4391594071","https://openalex.org/W4205926064","https://openalex.org/W2519133569","https://openalex.org/W2804254948","https://openalex.org/W3034764119","https://openalex.org/W2031225564","https://openalex.org/W4284884297","https://openalex.org/W3136444631","https://openalex.org/W2908325530"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Although":[0],"the":[1,15,28,39,54,75,112,181,223],"level":[2,55,102,211],"of":[3,17,56,62,92,103,183,201,212,220],"safety":[4,104,213],"required":[5],"before":[6,138],"drivers":[7,68,120,173],"will":[8],"accept":[9],"self-driving":[10,106,125,148,153,165,202,221],"cars":[11,126,203],"is":[12,45,187,214],"not":[13,196,232],"clear,":[14],"criterion":[16,34],"being":[18,160],"safer":[19,73,129,188],"than":[20,38,74,130,178,189,226],"a":[21,60,122,147,152,190,227],"human":[22,41,191,228],"driver":[23,77,192],"has":[24,64],"become":[25],"pervasive":[26],"in":[27,146],"discourse":[29],"on":[30,167],"vehicle":[31],"automation.":[32],"This":[33,109],"actually":[35],"means":[36],"\"safer":[37,225],"average":[40,76,114,179],"driver,\"":[42],"because":[43],"it":[44],"necessarily":[46],"defined":[47],"with":[48],"respect":[49],"to":[50,71,96,135,218],"population-level":[51],"data.":[52],"At":[53],"individual":[57],"risk":[58],"assessment,":[59],"body":[61],"research":[63],"shown":[65],"that":[66,118,127,186],"most":[67,119,172,205],"perceive":[69],"themselves":[70],"be":[72,233],"(the":[78],"better-than-average":[79],"effect).":[80],"METHOD:":[81],"Using":[82],"an":[83,215],"online":[84],"sample,":[85],"this":[86],"study":[87,110],"examined":[88],"U.S.":[89],"drivers'":[90],"ratings":[91],"their":[93,100,131],"own":[94,132],"ability":[95,134],"drive":[97,136],"safely":[98,137],"and":[99,116,162],"desired":[101],"for":[105,124,204,235],"vehicles.":[107],"RESULTS:":[108],"replicated":[111],"better-than":[113],"effect":[115],"showed":[117],"stated":[121],"desire":[123],"are":[128,176],"perceived":[133,210],"they":[139,175],"would:":[140],"(1)":[141],"feel":[142],"reasonably":[143],"safe":[144,199],"riding":[145],"vehicle;":[149],"(2)":[150],"buy":[151],"vehicle,":[154],"all":[155],"other":[156],"things":[157],"(cost,":[158],"etc.)":[159],"equal;":[161],"(3)":[163],"allow":[164],"vehicles":[166],"public":[168],"roads.":[169],"CONCLUSIONS:":[170],"Since":[171],"believe":[174],"better":[177],"drivers,":[180],"benchmark":[182,230],"achieving":[184],"automation":[185],"(on":[193],"average)":[194],"may":[195,231],"represent":[197],"acceptably":[198],"performance":[200],"drivers.":[206],"Practical":[207],"applications:":[208],"If":[209],"important":[216],"contributor":[217],"acceptance":[219],"vehicles,":[222],"popular":[224],"driver\"":[229],"adequate":[234],"widespread":[236],"acceptance.":[237]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-10-31T12:09:11.096373","created_date":"2019-03-11T00:00:00"}
