{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2186717876","doi":null,"title":"\"The White/Black Educational Gap, Stalled Progress, and the Long Term Consequences of the Crack Epidemic\"","display_name":"\"The White/Black Educational Gap, Stalled Progress, and the Long Term Consequences of the Crack Epidemic\"","publication_year":2012,"publication_date":"2012-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2186717876","mag":"2186717876"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:ro.uow.edu.au:lew2012-1006","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/lew2012/2012/papers/7","pdf_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=lew2012","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400510","display_name":"Research Online (University of Wollongong)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I204824540","host_organization_name":"University of Wollongong","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204824540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"15th Annual Labour Econometrics Workshop","raw_type":"text"},"volume":null,"type":"conference-paper","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":[],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=lew2012","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103028282","display_name":"William N. Evans","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3470-8627","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3470-8627"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"William N. Evans","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3470-8627","affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016734510","display_name":"Craig Garthwaite","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3360-1594","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3360-1594"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Craig Garthwaite","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3360-1594","affiliations":[]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008779285","display_name":"Timothy Moore","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3195-8495","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3195-8495"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Timothy Moore","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3195-8495","affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":0.0,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":1,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.0,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":93},"biblio":{"volume":null,"issue":null,"first_page":null,"last_page":null},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12088","display_name":"Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies","score":0.2468000054359436,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12088","display_name":"Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies","score":0.2468000054359436,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10318","display_name":"Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis","score":0.22769999504089355,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10674","display_name":"School Choice and Performance","score":0.1988999992609024,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/crack-cocaine-epidemic","display_name":"crack cocaine epidemic","score":0.949999988079071},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/educational-convergence","display_name":"educational convergence","score":0.671999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/high-school-graduation-rates","display_name":"high school graduation rates","score":0.8799999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/incarceration-rates","display_name":"incarceration rates","score":0.7039999961853027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homicide-rates","display_name":"homicide rates","score":0.8679999709129333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/returns-to-education","display_name":"returns to education","score":0.8960000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-capital-theory","display_name":"human capital theory","score":0.7329999804496765},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/educational-investment","display_name":"educational investment","score":0.7300000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racial-disparities-in-education","display_name":"racial inequality in education","score":0.671999990940094},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/drug-policy","display_name":"drug policy","score":0.4650000035762787}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779529714","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2632744","display_name":"Graduation (instrument)","level":2,"score":0.7951319813728333},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993101906","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23768","display_name":"Las vegas","level":3,"score":0.6966578960418701},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56273599","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3122841","display_name":"White (mutation)","level":3,"score":0.6108149290084839},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993505719","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165687","display_name":"Human capital theory","level":3,"score":0.4872516691684723},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992814624","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q817393","display_name":"Black male","level":2,"score":0.46999773383140564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776943663","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165687","display_name":"Human capital","level":2,"score":0.46422407031059265},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4249254","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3044431","display_name":"Demographic economics","level":1,"score":0.44077813625335693},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777303404","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759757","display_name":"Convergence (economics)","level":2,"score":0.43503502011299133},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61797465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1188986","display_name":"Term (time)","level":2,"score":0.42549288272857666},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C6303427","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47398","display_name":"Economic history","level":1,"score":0.3624339699745178},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.3521900475025177},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C95457728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q309","display_name":"History","level":0,"score":0.33086276054382324},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.3231712579727173},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.3101491332054138},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.27659836411476135},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.1870095431804657},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50522688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189833","display_name":"Economic growth","level":1,"score":0.1563633382320404},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107993555","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1662673","display_name":"Gender studies","level":1,"score":0.1560283899307251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.1384734809398651},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.08189570903778076},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78519656","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q101333","display_name":"Mechanical engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C18918823","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49389","display_name":"Tourism","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"pmh:oai:ro.uow.edu.au:lew2012-1006","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/lew2012/2012/papers/7","pdf_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=lew2012","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400510","display_name":"Research Online (University of Wollongong)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I204824540","host_organization_name":"University of Wollongong","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204824540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"15th Annual Labour Econometrics Workshop","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:figshare.com:article/27826956","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://figshare.com/articles/conference_contribution/The_White_Black_Educational_Gap_Stalled_Progress_and_the_Long_Term_Consequences_of_the_Crack_Epidemic/27826956","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4377196282","display_name":"Figshare","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210132348","host_organization_name":"Figshare (United Kingdom)","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210132348"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Conference contribution"},{"id":"mag:2186717876","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/economics/_files/Seminar-Papers/sem20120831.pdf","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:ro.uow.edu.au:lew2012-1006","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/lew2012/2012/papers/7","pdf_url":"https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=lew2012","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400510","display_name":"Research Online (University of Wollongong)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I204824540","host_organization_name":"University of Wollongong","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I204824540"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"15th Annual Labour Econometrics Workshop","raw_type":"text"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.8974000215530396,"display_name":"Reduced inequalities","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10"},{"score":0.5473999977111816,"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2186717876.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2186717876.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":55,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W42259563","https://openalex.org/W107887801","https://openalex.org/W127469153","https://openalex.org/W181167058","https://openalex.org/W194918871","https://openalex.org/W563278073","https://openalex.org/W610868351","https://openalex.org/W652262659","https://openalex.org/W1500692180","https://openalex.org/W1547622408","https://openalex.org/W1567096572","https://openalex.org/W1582913686","https://openalex.org/W1591262874","https://openalex.org/W1600049366","https://openalex.org/W1604667637","https://openalex.org/W1661475426","https://openalex.org/W1895891998","https://openalex.org/W1925257902","https://openalex.org/W1925661850","https://openalex.org/W1974325956","https://openalex.org/W1976339501","https://openalex.org/W1978161411","https://openalex.org/W1981486496","https://openalex.org/W1986413824","https://openalex.org/W1987575827","https://openalex.org/W1988917962","https://openalex.org/W1992355485","https://openalex.org/W1997684209","https://openalex.org/W2018970551","https://openalex.org/W2038312409","https://openalex.org/W2040095917","https://openalex.org/W2044639668","https://openalex.org/W2047854331","https://openalex.org/W2053695264","https://openalex.org/W2066838146","https://openalex.org/W2066997027","https://openalex.org/W2083204634","https://openalex.org/W2095161567","https://openalex.org/W2107768650","https://openalex.org/W2110963671","https://openalex.org/W2113091827","https://openalex.org/W2122125930","https://openalex.org/W2122153309","https://openalex.org/W2123882742","https://openalex.org/W2132232457","https://openalex.org/W2140410834","https://openalex.org/W2159312667","https://openalex.org/W2166494864","https://openalex.org/W2166649554","https://openalex.org/W2175022164","https://openalex.org/W2335196819","https://openalex.org/W2899318197","https://openalex.org/W3044348100","https://openalex.org/W3121967737","https://openalex.org/W3158666512"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2189020413","https://openalex.org/W3123277841","https://openalex.org/W4285267810","https://openalex.org/W7100018785","https://openalex.org/W7096460737","https://openalex.org/W2966168598","https://openalex.org/W3134710424","https://openalex.org/W2068193843","https://openalex.org/W4406669378","https://openalex.org/W2175022164"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"We":[0,56],"propose":[1],"the":[2,11,14,22,29,51,54,59,71],"rise":[3],"of":[4,28,31,53,61,70],"crack":[5,32,62],"cocaine":[6],"as":[7],"an":[8],"explanation":[9],"for":[10,64],"end":[12],"to":[13,95,98],"convergence":[15],"in":[16,21,34,45,73,84,93],"black-white":[17],"educational":[18,90],"outcomes":[19],"beginning":[20],"mid-1980s.":[23],"After":[24],"constructing":[25],"a":[26],"measure":[27],"arrival":[30,33,52],"cities":[35],"and":[36,47,67],"states,":[37],"we":[38],"first":[39],"show":[40,57],"there":[41],"are":[42],"large":[43],"increases":[44],"incarceration":[46],"murder":[48],"rates":[49],"after":[50],"drug.":[55],"that":[58],"emergence":[60],"accounts":[63],"between":[65],"39":[66],"71":[68],"percent":[69],"fall":[72],"black":[74],"male":[75],"high":[76],"school":[77],"graduation":[78],"rates.":[79],"The":[80],"results":[81],"suggest":[82],"that,":[83],"line":[85],"with":[86],"human":[87],"capital":[88],"theory,":[89],"investments":[91],"declined":[92],"response":[94],"decreased":[96],"returns":[97],"schooling.":[99]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-09-26T08:19:03.415552","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}