{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2144406801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","title":"Is It the Intervention or the Students? Using Linear Regression to Control for Student Characteristics in Undergraduate STEM Education Research","display_name":"Is It the Intervention or the Students? Using Linear Regression to Control for Student Characteristics in Undergraduate STEM Education Research","publication_year":2014,"publication_date":"2014-03-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2144406801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","mag":"2144406801","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24591502","pmcid":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/3940461"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","pdf_url":"https://www.lifescied.org/doi/epdf/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S94345546","display_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","issn_l":"1931-7913","issn":["1931-7913"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319721","host_organization_name":"American Society for Cell Biology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319721"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Society for Cell Biology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://www.lifescied.org/doi/epdf/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052722409","display_name":"Roddy J. Theobald","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5479-4147","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5479-4147"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201448701","display_name":"University of Washington","ror":"https://ror.org/00cvxb145","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Roddy Theobald","raw_affiliation_strings":["*Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322","Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322 Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"*Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322 Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":null,"display_name":"Scott Freeman","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I201448701","display_name":"University of Washington","ror":"https://ror.org/00cvxb145","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Scott Freeman","raw_affiliation_strings":["Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4322","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5052722409"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I201448701"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":12.5612,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":153,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.98975213,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":97,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"1","first_page":"41","last_page":"48"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11875","display_name":"Statistics Education and Methodologies","score":0.8564000129699707,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11875","display_name":"Statistics Education and Methodologies","score":0.8564000129699707,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10561","display_name":"Educational Research and Methods","score":0.0406000018119812,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11039","display_name":"Evaluation of Teaching Practices","score":0.03849999979138374,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learning-gains","display_name":"learning gains","score":0.5899999737739563},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multiple-linear-regression","display_name":"multiple linear regression","score":0.7919999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/student-characteristics","display_name":"student characteristics","score":0.8209999799728394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/introductory-biology","display_name":"introductory biology","score":0.7940000295639038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/student-preparation","display_name":"student preparation","score":0.5270000100135803}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780665704","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q959298","display_name":"Intervention (counseling)","level":2,"score":0.6578941941261292},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2775924081","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q55608371","display_name":"Control (management)","level":2,"score":0.552327036857605},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145420912","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q853077","display_name":"Mathematics education","level":1,"score":0.5265947580337524},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C509550671","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q126945","display_name":"Medical education","level":1,"score":0.5208538174629211},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C152877465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q208042","display_name":"Regression analysis","level":2,"score":0.48094433546066284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.442600280046463},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777267654","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3519023","display_name":"Test (biology)","level":2,"score":0.440705269575119},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48921125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q10861030","display_name":"Linear regression","level":2,"score":0.4254315495491028},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.3783366084098816},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C71924100","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190","display_name":"Medicine","level":0,"score":0.2536601722240448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C119857082","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2539","display_name":"Machine learning","level":1,"score":0.13225656747817993},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C154945302","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11660","display_name":"Artificial intelligence","level":1,"score":0.09187233448028564},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118552586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7867","display_name":"Psychiatry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C151730666","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7205","display_name":"Paleontology","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D004738","descriptor_name":"Engineering","qualifier_ui":"Q000193","qualifier_name":"education","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D008433","descriptor_name":"Mathematics","qualifier_ui":"Q000193","qualifier_name":"education","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012106","descriptor_name":"Research","qualifier_ui":"Q000193","qualifier_name":"education","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D012586","descriptor_name":"Science","qualifier_ui":"Q000193","qualifier_name":"education","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D013334","descriptor_name":"Students","qualifier_ui":"Q000706","qualifier_name":"statistics & numerical data","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D013672","descriptor_name":"Technology","qualifier_ui":"Q000193","qualifier_name":"education","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D016014","descriptor_name":"Linear Models","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":6,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","pdf_url":"https://www.lifescied.org/doi/epdf/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S94345546","display_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","issn_l":"1931-7913","issn":["1931-7913"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319721","host_organization_name":"American Society for Cell Biology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319721"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Society for Cell Biology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:europepmc.org:2927177","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://europepmc.org/articles/PMC3940461","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400806","display_name":"Europe PMC (PubMed Central)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1303153112","host_organization_name":"European Bioinformatics Institute","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1303153112"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmid:24591502","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24591502","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"CBE life sciences education","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pubmedcentral.nih.gov:3940461","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3940461/","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S2764455111","display_name":"PubMed Central","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":true,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"CBE Life Sci Educ","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.1019.6888","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1019.6888","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://www.lifescied.org/content/13/1/41.full.pdf","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.1024.1804","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.1024.1804","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid%3DPMC3940461%26blobtype%3Dpdf","raw_type":"text"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","pdf_url":"https://www.lifescied.org/doi/epdf/10.1187/cbe-13-07-0136","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S94345546","display_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","issn_l":"1931-7913","issn":["1931-7913"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310319721","host_organization_name":"American Society for Cell Biology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310319721"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Society for Cell Biology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-sa","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"CBE\u2014Life Sciences Education","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.9901999831199646,"display_name":"Quality education","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/4"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/G5108286529","display_name":"Guided Group Activities To Enhance Ways of Learning in Biology:  GATEWAY Learning in Biology","funder_award_id":"0942215","funder_id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","funder_display_name":"National Science Foundation"}],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320306076","display_name":"National Science Foundation","ror":"https://ror.org/021nxhr62"}],"has_content":{"pdf":true,"grobid_xml":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2144406801.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2144406801.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":28,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1500234137","https://openalex.org/W1529768225","https://openalex.org/W1964861149","https://openalex.org/W1972498063","https://openalex.org/W1981457167","https://openalex.org/W1988671479","https://openalex.org/W2002848859","https://openalex.org/W2008190462","https://openalex.org/W2008785686","https://openalex.org/W2022113252","https://openalex.org/W2048568211","https://openalex.org/W2055583849","https://openalex.org/W2069596059","https://openalex.org/W2101141352","https://openalex.org/W2114609700","https://openalex.org/W2127025954","https://openalex.org/W2133819396","https://openalex.org/W2143991630","https://openalex.org/W2154681222","https://openalex.org/W2155793984","https://openalex.org/W2156652543","https://openalex.org/W2160411452","https://openalex.org/W2161573410","https://openalex.org/W2167023776","https://openalex.org/W2170710283","https://openalex.org/W2341787012","https://openalex.org/W3121388701","https://openalex.org/W4250671453"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2183046967","https://openalex.org/W7117316678","https://openalex.org/W2058245581","https://openalex.org/W4234201402","https://openalex.org/W3145319321","https://openalex.org/W2524555417","https://openalex.org/W3169571420","https://openalex.org/W600793207","https://openalex.org/W2553684286","https://openalex.org/W7154274382"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Although":[0],"researchers":[1,128],"in":[2,42,57,88,139],"undergraduate":[3],"science,":[4],"technology,":[5],"engineering,":[6],"and":[7,21,67,74,96,142],"mathematics":[8],"education":[9],"are":[10,45],"currently":[11,87],"using":[12],"several":[13],"methods":[14,86],"to":[15,38,47,55,65,93,144],"analyze":[16],"learning":[17,43],"gains":[18,44],"from":[19,77,113],"pre-":[20,73],"posttest":[22,75],"data,":[23],"the":[24,36,48,85,107,114,146],"most":[25],"commonly":[26],"used":[27],"approaches":[28],"have":[29],"significant":[30],"shortcomings.":[31],"Chief":[32],"among":[33],"these":[34],"is":[35],"inability":[37],"distinguish":[39],"whether":[40],"differences":[41,56,138],"due":[46],"effect":[49,147],"of":[50,109,116,148],"an":[51,78,102,110],"instructional":[52,111,151],"intervention":[53,112,152],"or":[54],"student":[58,117,140,154],"characteristics":[59,118],"when":[60],"students":[61],"cannot":[62],"be":[63],"assigned":[64],"control":[66,135],"treatment":[68],"groups":[69],"at":[70],"random.":[71],"Using":[72],"scores":[76],"introductory":[79],"biology":[80],"course,":[81],"we":[82,125],"illustrate":[83],"how":[84,97],"wide":[89],"use":[90,130],"can":[91],"lead":[92],"erroneous":[94],"conclusions,":[95],"multiple":[98],"linear":[99],"regression":[100,132],"offers":[101],"effective":[103],"framework":[104],"for":[105,136],"distinguishing":[106],"impact":[108,115],"on":[119,153],"test":[120],"score":[121],"gains.":[122],"In":[123],"general,":[124],"recommend":[126],"that":[127,134],"always":[129],"student-level":[131],"models":[133],"possible":[137],"ability":[141],"preparation":[143],"estimate":[145],"any":[149],"nonrandomized":[150],"performance.":[155]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":20},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":18},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":16},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-11-10T11:39:43.021295","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
