{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2144259334","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","title":"Gangs as Non-State Armed Groups: The Central American Case","display_name":"Gangs as Non-State Armed Groups: The Central American Case","publication_year":2009,"publication_date":"2009-08-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2144259334","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","mag":"2144259334"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1080/13523260903059948","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S41834288","display_name":"Contemporary Security Policy","issn_l":"1352-3260","issn":["1352-3260","1743-8764"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320547","host_organization_name":"Taylor & Francis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320547","https://openalex.org/P4310320449"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Taylor & Francis","Informa"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Contemporary Security Policy","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/28429/1/Gangs_as_non-state_armed_groups_%28LSERO%29.pdf","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5052921757","display_name":"Dennis Rodgers","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8957-4796","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8957-4796"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Dennis Rodgers","raw_affiliation_strings":["SEED Research Centres"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"SEED Research Centres","institution_ids":[]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5039987318","display_name":"Robert Muggah","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1754-3127","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1754-3127"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","display_name":"University of Manchester","ror":"https://ror.org/027m9bs27","country_code":"GB","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4405270769","display_name":"Small Arms Survey","ror":"https://ror.org/01a1k5a76","country_code":"CH","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4405270769"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I951315","display_name":"Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies","ror":"https://ror.org/007ygn379","country_code":"CH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I951315"]}],"countries":["CH","GB"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Robert Muggah","raw_affiliation_strings":["Research Director, Small Arms Survey, and Fellow, Centre for Conflict, Peace and Development (CCPD), Geneva, Switzerland","Senior Research Fellow, Brooks World Poverty Institute, University of Manchester, UK"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Research Director, Small Arms Survey, and Fellow, Centre for Conflict, Peace and Development (CCPD), Geneva, Switzerland","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I4405270769","https://openalex.org/I951315"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Senior Research Fellow, Brooks World Poverty Institute, University of Manchester, UK","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":2,"institutions_distinct_count":3,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5052921757"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":6.4966,"has_fulltext":true,"cited_by_count":100,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96051269,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":88,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"30","issue":"2","first_page":"301","last_page":"317"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11838","display_name":"Crime, Illicit Activities, and Governance","score":0.9839000105857849,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11838","display_name":"Crime, Illicit Activities, and Governance","score":0.9839000105857849,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10070","display_name":"Political Conflict and Governance","score":0.008200000040233135,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12263","display_name":"Peacebuilding and International Security","score":0.0027000000700354576,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gangs","display_name":"gangs","score":0.9800000190734863},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/non-state-armed-groups","display_name":"non-state armed groups","score":0.9990000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/central-america","display_name":"Central America","score":0.9279999732971191},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gang-violence","display_name":"gang violence","score":0.625},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/state-functions","display_name":"state functions","score":0.4020000100135803},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/security-threats","display_name":"security threats","score":0.7559999823570251}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C48103436","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q599031","display_name":"State (computer science)","level":2,"score":0.7085200548171997},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C94625758","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7163","display_name":"Politics","level":2,"score":0.6847072839736938},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C27415008","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7256382","display_name":"Psychological intervention","level":2,"score":0.6061203479766846},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73484699","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161733","display_name":"Criminology","level":1,"score":0.5667020082473755},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.5208806991577148},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138921699","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q47555","display_name":"Political economy","level":1,"score":0.5058781504631042},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.40450745820999146},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.19647517800331116},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.19406217336654663},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11413529","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8366","display_name":"Algorithm","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118552586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7867","display_name":"Psychiatry","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1080/13523260903059948","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S41834288","display_name":"Contemporary Security Policy","issn_l":"1352-3260","issn":["1352-3260","1743-8764"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320547","host_organization_name":"Taylor & Francis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320547","https://openalex.org/P4310320449"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Taylor & Francis","Informa"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Contemporary Security Policy","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.atira.dk:openaire_cris_publications/a188559a-129f-4965-9e35-c39442eabe21","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/a188559a-129f-4965-9e35-c39442eabe21","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400662","display_name":"Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","host_organization_name":"University of Manchester","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Rodgers, D & Muggah, R 2009, 'Gangs as Non-State Armed Groups: The Central American Case', Contemporary Security Policy, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 301-317. https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:eprints.lse.ac.uk:28429","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/28429/1/Gangs_as_non-state_armed_groups_%28LSERO%29.pdf","pdf_url":"http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/28429/1/Gangs_as_non-state_armed_groups_%28LSERO%29.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401593","display_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I909854389","host_organization_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I909854389"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"acceptedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:researchonline.lse.ac.uk:28429","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","pdf_url":"https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/28429/1/Gangs_as_non-state_armed_groups_%28LSERO%29.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400050","display_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I909854389","host_organization_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I909854389"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:pure.atira.dk:openaire_cris_publications/f0a72127-0198-4d9e-8d55-620b6da9402e","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/f0a72127-0198-4d9e-8d55-620b6da9402e","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400662","display_name":"Research Explorer (The University of Manchester)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I28407311","host_organization_name":"University of Manchester","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I28407311"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Rodgers, D, Muggah, R & Krause, K (ed.) 2010, Gangs as Non-State Armed Groups : The Central American Case. in Armed Groups and Contemporary Conflicts : Challenging the Weberian State. Routledge, London.","raw_type":"info:eu-repo/semantics/bookPart"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.graduateinstitute.ch:296192","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://repository.graduateinstitute.ch/record/296192","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402451","display_name":"Graduate Institute Geneva Institutional Repository (Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I951315","host_organization_name":"Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I951315"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc-nd","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc-nd","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://repository.graduateinstitute.ch/record/296192","raw_type":"Text"},{"id":"mag:2174405019","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:106690","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:researchonline.lse.ac.uk:28429","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/13523260903059948","pdf_url":"https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/28429/1/Gangs_as_non-state_armed_groups_%28LSERO%29.pdf","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400050","display_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I909854389","host_organization_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I909854389"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"Article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.9595999717712402,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/F4320312710","display_name":"London School of Economics and Political Science","ror":"https://ror.org/0090zs177"}],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":true,"pdf":true},"content_urls":{"pdf":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2144259334.pdf","grobid_xml":"https://content.openalex.org/works/W2144259334.grobid-xml"},"referenced_works_count":36,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W86301815","https://openalex.org/W117827220","https://openalex.org/W131385777","https://openalex.org/W159101613","https://openalex.org/W195386041","https://openalex.org/W596579313","https://openalex.org/W659200876","https://openalex.org/W778661699","https://openalex.org/W1545273226","https://openalex.org/W1573082568","https://openalex.org/W1579671662","https://openalex.org/W1585737460","https://openalex.org/W1774550996","https://openalex.org/W1930249491","https://openalex.org/W1942276702","https://openalex.org/W1990983822","https://openalex.org/W1993470916","https://openalex.org/W2068367028","https://openalex.org/W2097432728","https://openalex.org/W2116941913","https://openalex.org/W2127769547","https://openalex.org/W2135316514","https://openalex.org/W2177882767","https://openalex.org/W2240755163","https://openalex.org/W2282577328","https://openalex.org/W2336755109","https://openalex.org/W2527613273","https://openalex.org/W2593661658","https://openalex.org/W3014185892","https://openalex.org/W3122074090","https://openalex.org/W4206229164","https://openalex.org/W4233366023","https://openalex.org/W4235750713","https://openalex.org/W4285719527","https://openalex.org/W4298274542","https://openalex.org/W4384103382"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W1986603541","https://openalex.org/W403507456","https://openalex.org/W2488464397","https://openalex.org/W1990511566","https://openalex.org/W2186965042","https://openalex.org/W6987319747","https://openalex.org/W1977673987","https://openalex.org/W568471121","https://openalex.org/W1864571085","https://openalex.org/W4252211480"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Gangs":[0],"are":[1,106],"popularly":[2],"considered":[3],"to":[4,30,51,71,90,121],"be":[5,122],"the":[6,11,18,25,39,73,115,136,145],"major":[7],"security":[8],"threat":[9],"facing":[10,144],"Central":[12,146],"American":[13,147],"region.":[14,148],"In":[15],"focusing":[16],"on":[17,46],"origins":[19],"and":[20,48,58,92,141],"dynamics":[21],"of":[22,33,55,64],"gangs":[23,94],"in":[24],"region,":[26],"this":[27],"article":[28,85],"seeks":[29],"broaden":[31],"conceptualizations":[32],"non-state":[34],"armed":[35],"groups":[36],"by":[37,103],"expanding":[38],"theoretical":[40],"optic":[41],"from":[42,96],"a":[43,52,62,109],"narrow":[44],"focus":[45],"war":[47],"post-war":[49],"contexts":[50],"wider":[53],"spectrum":[54],"settings,":[56],"actors,":[57],"motivations.":[59],"It":[60],"highlights":[61],"category":[63],"actors":[65],"that":[66,134],"does":[67],"not":[68],"explicitly":[69],"seek":[70],"overthrow":[72],"state,":[74],"but":[75],"rather":[76],"progressively":[77],"undermines":[78],"or":[79,111],"assumes":[80],"certain":[81],"state":[82],"functions.":[83],"The":[84],"also":[86],"reveals":[87],"how":[88],"efforts":[89],"contain":[91],"regulate":[93],"flow":[95],"their":[97],"imputed":[98],"motives,":[99],"with":[100],"interventions":[101,128],"influenced":[102],"whether":[104],"they":[105],"conceived":[107],"as":[108],"criminal":[110],"political":[112],"threat.":[113],"At":[114],"same":[116],"time,":[117],"coercive":[118],"regulation":[119],"tend":[120],"favoured":[123],"even":[124],"when":[125],"such":[126],"repressive":[127],"exacerbate":[129],"gang":[130],"violence,":[131],"for":[132],"reasons":[133],"reveal":[135],"deeper":[137],"underlying":[138],"political,":[139],"social,":[140],"economic":[142],"challenges":[143]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":12},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":10},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}