{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2139687486","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","title":"Immigration and Inequality","display_name":"Immigration and Inequality","publication_year":2009,"publication_date":"2009-04-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2139687486","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","mag":"2139687486"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1257/aer.99.2.1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S23254222","display_name":"American Economic Review","issn_l":"0002-8282","issn":["0002-8282","1944-7981"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","fnege-1-star","ft50","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315912","host_organization_name":"American Economic Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315912"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Economic Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Economic Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5090324651","display_name":"David Card","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6914-6698","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6914-6698"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I95457486","display_name":"University of California, Berkeley","ror":"https://ror.org/01an7q238","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I95457486"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"David Card","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of California-Berkeley, 549 Evans Hall, #3880, Berkeley CA 94720\u20133880, and NBER"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of California-Berkeley, 549 Evans Hall, #3880, Berkeley CA 94720\u20133880, and NBER","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95457486"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5090324651"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95457486"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":125.0793,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":809,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99979124,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"99","issue":"2","first_page":"1","last_page":"21"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10349","display_name":"Migration and Labor Dynamics","score":0.8500999808311462,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10349","display_name":"Migration and Labor Dynamics","score":0.8500999808311462,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10208","display_name":"Labor market dynamics and wage inequality","score":0.13660000264644623,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2002","display_name":"Economics and Econometrics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10128","display_name":"Global trade and economics","score":0.0038999998942017555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2000","display_name":"General Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/immigration","display_name":"immigration","score":0.9940000176429749},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/wage-inequality","display_name":"wage inequality","score":0.9950000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/skill-substitution","display_name":"skill substitution","score":0.7580000162124634},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/elasticity-of-substitution","display_name":"elasticity of substitution","score":0.765999972820282},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cross-city-comparison","display_name":"cross-city comparison","score":0.652999997138977},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/immigration-flows","display_name":"immigration flows","score":0.5239999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/native-wages","display_name":"native wages","score":0.453000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/residual-wage-inequality","display_name":"residual wage inequality","score":0.5770000219345093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/skill-distribution","display_name":"skill distribution","score":0.6489999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/upper-secondary-school","display_name":"upper secondary school","score":0.5809999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/university-education","display_name":"university education","score":0.5220000147819519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/labor-market-effects-of-immigration","display_name":"labor market effects of immigration","score":0.4830000102519989}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.7177861928939819},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C45555294","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28113351","display_name":"Inequality","level":2,"score":0.6945456862449646},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C70036468","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131288","display_name":"Immigration","level":2,"score":0.6614331007003784},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4249254","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3044431","display_name":"Demographic economics","level":1,"score":0.413921982049942},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C513380476","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5055020","display_name":"Economic inequality","level":3,"score":0.4135509431362152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.12706616520881653},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.12034639716148376},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.05695942044258118},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C134306372","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7754","display_name":"Mathematical analysis","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1257/aer.99.2.1","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S23254222","display_name":"American Economic Review","issn_l":"0002-8282","issn":["0002-8282","1944-7981"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","fnege-1-star","ft50","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315912","host_organization_name":"American Economic Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315912"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Economic Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Economic Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:aea:aecrev:v:99:y:2009:i:2:p:1-21","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/aer.99.2.1","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"score":0.9629999995231628,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","display_name":"Reduced inequalities"},{"score":0.48510000109672546,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8","display_name":"Decent work and economic growth"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"score":0.699999988079071,"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8","display_name":"Decent work and economic growth"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":79,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W35745328","https://openalex.org/W136534404","https://openalex.org/W266390580","https://openalex.org/W572036519","https://openalex.org/W611550148","https://openalex.org/W756339103","https://openalex.org/W1519857495","https://openalex.org/W1522932312","https://openalex.org/W1539799610","https://openalex.org/W1548026998","https://openalex.org/W1564019873","https://openalex.org/W1576129150","https://openalex.org/W1580655211","https://openalex.org/W1603377366","https://openalex.org/W1693960307","https://openalex.org/W1946417596","https://openalex.org/W1950171861","https://openalex.org/W1963775283","https://openalex.org/W1964352664","https://openalex.org/W1975408086","https://openalex.org/W1991642824","https://openalex.org/W1992726449","https://openalex.org/W1996684464","https://openalex.org/W1997305146","https://openalex.org/W1997368086","https://openalex.org/W2008747999","https://openalex.org/W2012521813","https://openalex.org/W2024254834","https://openalex.org/W2030914304","https://openalex.org/W2033114060","https://openalex.org/W2036966972","https://openalex.org/W2037709016","https://openalex.org/W2037740716","https://openalex.org/W2042248782","https://openalex.org/W2045658223","https://openalex.org/W2050482467","https://openalex.org/W2054251332","https://openalex.org/W2061793952","https://openalex.org/W2065332420","https://openalex.org/W2068264389","https://openalex.org/W2068780172","https://openalex.org/W2071937855","https://openalex.org/W2085038761","https://openalex.org/W2090812533","https://openalex.org/W2092004041","https://openalex.org/W2097457241","https://openalex.org/W2102292466","https://openalex.org/W2107497267","https://openalex.org/W2116555775","https://openalex.org/W2117946532","https://openalex.org/W2120025236","https://openalex.org/W2125732631","https://openalex.org/W2127630851","https://openalex.org/W2127811995","https://openalex.org/W2136508300","https://openalex.org/W2139346518","https://openalex.org/W2146020513","https://openalex.org/W2154631982","https://openalex.org/W2158574981","https://openalex.org/W2164507656","https://openalex.org/W2165143182","https://openalex.org/W2166646655","https://openalex.org/W2168835874","https://openalex.org/W2243004343","https://openalex.org/W2504963803","https://openalex.org/W2890818893","https://openalex.org/W2891330906","https://openalex.org/W3024856123","https://openalex.org/W3121618003","https://openalex.org/W3122011382","https://openalex.org/W3122991832","https://openalex.org/W3123214071","https://openalex.org/W3123701384","https://openalex.org/W3124074988","https://openalex.org/W3124296045","https://openalex.org/W3125001593","https://openalex.org/W3126091369","https://openalex.org/W3140473054","https://openalex.org/W4256451231"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W3125679062","https://openalex.org/W2990713784","https://openalex.org/W2015329634","https://openalex.org/W2790563284","https://openalex.org/W2133795813","https://openalex.org/W1966590791","https://openalex.org/W7097777144","https://openalex.org/W7100564292","https://openalex.org/W2765654791","https://openalex.org/W2803459576"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Immigration":[0],"is":[1,18,69,79],"often":[2],"viewed":[3],"as":[4],"a":[5,115,201],"proximate":[6],"cause":[7],"of":[8,43,136,155,162,180,185,204],"the":[9,21,28,46,58,75,134,152,159,183,186,205],"rising":[10],"wage":[11,209],"gap":[12],"between":[13,48,211],"highand\r\nlow-skilled":[14],"workers.":[15],"Nevertheless,":[16],"there":[17],"controversy":[19],"over":[20,32],"appropriate\r\ntheoretical":[22],"and":[23,31,41,50,93,143,174,189,213],"empirical":[24],"framework":[25],"for":[26,99,112,200],"measuring":[27],"presumed":[29],"effect,":[30],"the\r\nprecise":[33],"magnitudes":[34],"involved.":[35],"This":[36],"paper":[37],"offers":[38],"an":[39,130],"overview":[40],"synthesis":[42],"existing\r\nknowledge":[44],"on":[45,53,86,133,158,169],"relationship":[47],"immigration":[49,198],"inequality,":[51],"focusing":[52],"evidence\r\nfrom":[54],"cross-city":[55,92],"comparisons":[56,97],"in":[57,182,207],"U.S.":[59,163,208],"While":[60],"some":[61],"researchers":[62],"have":[63],"claimed":[64],"that":[65,74,151],"a\r\ncross-city":[66],"research":[67],"design":[68],"inherently":[70],"flawed,":[71],"I":[72],"argue":[73],"evidence":[76],"from":[77],"cross-city\r\ncomparisons":[78],"remarkably":[80],"consistent":[81],"with":[82,105,114,129],"recent":[83],"findings":[84],"based":[85],"aggregate":[87,94],"time\r\nseries":[88],"data.":[89],"In":[90],"particular,":[91],"time":[95],"series":[96],"provide\r\nsupport":[98],"three":[100],"key":[101],"conclusions:":[102],"(1)":[103],"workers":[104,125],"below":[106],"high":[107,116],"school":[108,117,121],"education":[109,140],"are\r\nperfect":[110],"substitutes":[111],"those":[113],"education;":[118],"(2)":[119],"\u201chigh":[120],"equivalent\u201d\r\nand":[122],"\u201ccollege":[123],"equivalent\u201d":[124],"are":[126,165,176],"imperfect":[127],"substitutes,":[128],"elasticity":[131],"of\r\nsubstitution":[132],"order":[135],"2;":[137],"(3)":[138],"within":[139],"groups,":[141],"immigrants":[142,181,193],"natives":[144,164,173],"are\r\nimperfect":[145],"substitutes.":[146],"Together":[147],"these":[148],"results":[149],"imply":[150],"average":[153],"impacts":[154],"recent\r\nimmigrant":[156],"inflows":[157],"relative":[160],"wages":[161],"small.":[166],"The":[167],"effects":[168],"overall\r\nwage":[170],"inequality":[171,210],"(including":[172],"immigrants)":[175],"larger,":[177],"reflecting":[178],"the\r\nconcentration":[179],"tails":[184],"skill":[187],"distribution":[188],"higher":[190],"residual\r\ninequality":[191],"among":[192],"than":[194],"natives.":[195],"Even":[196],"so,":[197],"accounts":[199],"small\r\nshare":[202],"(5%)":[203],"increase":[206],"1980":[212],"2000.":[214]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":38},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":46},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":67},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":37},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":47},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":69},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":43},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":51},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":46},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":53},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":53},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":43},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":52},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":47},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":43}],"updated_date":"2026-10-29T09:56:32.521200","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
