{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2139658476","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","title":"The White/Black Educational Gap, Stalled Progress, and the Long-Term Consequences of the Emergence of Crack Cocaine Markets","display_name":"The White/Black Educational Gap, Stalled Progress, and the Long-Term Consequences of the Emergence of Crack Cocaine Markets","publication_year":2016,"publication_date":"2016-08-24","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2139658476","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","mag":"2139658476"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1162/rest_a_00635","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S180061323","display_name":"The Review of Economics and Statistics","issn_l":"0034-6535","issn":["0034-6535","1530-9142"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315718","host_organization_name":"The MIT Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315718","https://openalex.org/P4310316440"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["The MIT Press","Massachusetts Institute of Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Review of Economics and Statistics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"hybrid","oa_url":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5103028282","display_name":"William N. Evans","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3470-8627","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3470-8627"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I107639228","display_name":"University of Notre Dame","ror":"https://ror.org/00mkhxb43","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"William N. Evans","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Notre Dame and NBER"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Notre Dame and NBER","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I107639228"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5016734510","display_name":"Craig Garthwaite","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3360-1594","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3360-1594"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I111979921","display_name":"Northwestern University","ror":"https://ror.org/000e0be47","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I111979921"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I4210100400","display_name":"Northwestern University","ror":"https://ror.org/00m6w7z96","country_code":"PH","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210100400"]}],"countries":["PH","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Craig Garthwaite","raw_affiliation_strings":["Northwestern University and NBER","Northwestern University and NBER; "],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern University and NBER","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111979921","https://openalex.org/I4210100400"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Northwestern University and NBER; ","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I111979921"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5008779285","display_name":"Timothy Moore","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3195-8495","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3195-8495"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I1321305853","display_name":"National Bureau of Economic Research","ror":"https://ror.org/04grmx538","country_code":"US","type":"nonprofit","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1321305853"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I165779595","display_name":"The University of Melbourne","ror":"https://ror.org/01ej9dk98","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I165779595"]}],"countries":["AU","US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Timothy J. Moore","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Melbourne and NBER"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Melbourne and NBER","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I1321305853","https://openalex.org/I165779595"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":3,"institutions_distinct_count":5,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":11.3843,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":48,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.97708115,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"98","issue":"5","first_page":"832","last_page":"847"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12088","display_name":"Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies","score":0.22360000014305115,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12088","display_name":"Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies","score":0.22360000014305115,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10674","display_name":"School Choice and Performance","score":0.18080000579357147,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3304","display_name":"Education"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10318","display_name":"Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis","score":0.14090000092983246,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/educational-outcomes","display_name":"educational outcomes","score":0.5230000019073486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/crack-epidemic","display_name":"crack epidemic","score":0.6470000147819519},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/homicide-rates","display_name":"homicide rates","score":0.5929999947547913},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/incarceration-rates","display_name":"incarceration rates","score":0.9319999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-capital","display_name":"human capital","score":0.8149999976158142},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/racial-disparities-in-education","display_name":"racial inequality in education","score":0.6190000176429749}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C3019058438","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q330694","display_name":"Crack cocaine","level":2,"score":0.8220095634460449},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C56273599","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3122841","display_name":"White (mutation)","level":3,"score":0.6546463966369629},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2992814624","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q817393","display_name":"Black male","level":2,"score":0.53266441822052},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777303404","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q759757","display_name":"Convergence (economics)","level":2,"score":0.5208571553230286},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61797465","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1188986","display_name":"Term (time)","level":2,"score":0.5088151097297668},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2776943663","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q165687","display_name":"Human capital","level":2,"score":0.5003752708435059},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.49692872166633606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C4249254","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3044431","display_name":"Demographic economics","level":1,"score":0.4964354634284973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C145236788","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q28161","display_name":"Labour economics","level":1,"score":0.3277391195297241},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149923435","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q37732","display_name":"Demography","level":1,"score":0.3247831165790558},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.1917978823184967},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.15629920363426208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C50522688","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189833","display_name":"Economic growth","level":1,"score":0.11618807911872864},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.10455712676048279},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C55493867","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7094","display_name":"Biochemistry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C107993555","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1662673","display_name":"Gender studies","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C185592680","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2329","display_name":"Chemistry","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C118552586","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7867","display_name":"Psychiatry","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C104317684","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7187","display_name":"Gene","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1162/rest_a_00635","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S180061323","display_name":"The Review of Economics and Statistics","issn_l":"0034-6535","issn":["0034-6535","1530-9142"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315718","host_organization_name":"The MIT Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315718","https://openalex.org/P4310316440"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["The MIT Press","Massachusetts Institute of Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Review of Economics and Statistics","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:tpr:restat:v:98:y:2016:i:5:p:832-847","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/REST_a_00635","pdf_url":"http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/REST_a_00635","source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"doi:10.1162/rest_a_00635","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00635","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S180061323","display_name":"The Review of Economics and Statistics","issn_l":"0034-6535","issn":["0034-6535","1530-9142"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315718","host_organization_name":"The MIT Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315718","https://openalex.org/P4310316440"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["The MIT Press","Massachusetts Institute of Technology"],"type":"journal"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Review of Economics and Statistics","raw_type":"journal-article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","score":0.8974000215530396,"display_name":"Reduced inequalities"},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.5473999977111816,"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/3","score":0.8399999737739563,"display_name":"Good health and well-being"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":88,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W1725629","https://openalex.org/W42259563","https://openalex.org/W43857184","https://openalex.org/W104017492","https://openalex.org/W127469153","https://openalex.org/W181167058","https://openalex.org/W229810513","https://openalex.org/W563278073","https://openalex.org/W610868351","https://openalex.org/W1547622408","https://openalex.org/W1561022433","https://openalex.org/W1567096572","https://openalex.org/W1577294395","https://openalex.org/W1582913686","https://openalex.org/W1591262874","https://openalex.org/W1593653116","https://openalex.org/W1593724981","https://openalex.org/W1600049366","https://openalex.org/W1604667637","https://openalex.org/W1661475426","https://openalex.org/W1863454274","https://openalex.org/W1895891998","https://openalex.org/W1925661850","https://openalex.org/W1973207410","https://openalex.org/W1974325956","https://openalex.org/W1977001568","https://openalex.org/W1978161411","https://openalex.org/W1981486496","https://openalex.org/W1987575827","https://openalex.org/W1988917962","https://openalex.org/W1989003013","https://openalex.org/W1992355485","https://openalex.org/W1995327046","https://openalex.org/W1997684209","https://openalex.org/W2012058918","https://openalex.org/W2013034990","https://openalex.org/W2018970551","https://openalex.org/W2037635038","https://openalex.org/W2038312409","https://openalex.org/W2040095917","https://openalex.org/W2041800653","https://openalex.org/W2047854331","https://openalex.org/W2066838146","https://openalex.org/W2066997027","https://openalex.org/W2072310603","https://openalex.org/W2077523329","https://openalex.org/W2082309043","https://openalex.org/W2083018738","https://openalex.org/W2083204634","https://openalex.org/W2088253486","https://openalex.org/W2101649848","https://openalex.org/W2107768650","https://openalex.org/W2113091827","https://openalex.org/W2117908358","https://openalex.org/W2122125930","https://openalex.org/W2122153309","https://openalex.org/W2122450380","https://openalex.org/W2123882742","https://openalex.org/W2130250665","https://openalex.org/W2131115533","https://openalex.org/W2140410834","https://openalex.org/W2143018146","https://openalex.org/W2144373764","https://openalex.org/W2153897994","https://openalex.org/W2157173313","https://openalex.org/W2159312667","https://openalex.org/W2166494864","https://openalex.org/W2166528627","https://openalex.org/W2175022164","https://openalex.org/W2185044667","https://openalex.org/W2318746079","https://openalex.org/W2335196819","https://openalex.org/W2337743667","https://openalex.org/W2338673955","https://openalex.org/W2563415612","https://openalex.org/W2890167809","https://openalex.org/W2899318197","https://openalex.org/W3044348100","https://openalex.org/W3103290208","https://openalex.org/W3121949043","https://openalex.org/W3121967737","https://openalex.org/W3122225477","https://openalex.org/W3122317092","https://openalex.org/W3124354495","https://openalex.org/W3185398120","https://openalex.org/W4247140771","https://openalex.org/W4249545826","https://openalex.org/W4300270363"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4233030723","https://openalex.org/W3202590800","https://openalex.org/W2093526602","https://openalex.org/W1975241926","https://openalex.org/W2903574911","https://openalex.org/W4226470432","https://openalex.org/W2099694292","https://openalex.org/W2051324171","https://openalex.org/W2139658476","https://openalex.org/W2189020413"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Abstract":[0],"We":[1,66,102],"propose":[2],"the":[3,14,17,24,30,38,50,60,63,78,118],"rise":[4],"of":[5,40,62,80,88,117],"crack":[6,41,64,81,108],"cocaine":[7,82],"markets":[8,42,109],"as":[9],"a":[10,34,95],"key":[11],"explanation":[12],"for":[13,55,112],"end":[15],"to":[16,36,107,115],"convergence":[18],"in":[19,23,29,43,52,120],"black-white":[20],"educational":[21,53],"outcomes":[22,54],"United":[25],"States":[26],"that":[27,49,69,84,104],"began":[28],"mid-1980s.":[31],"After":[32],"constructing":[33],"measure":[35],"date":[37],"arrival":[39,79],"cities":[44],"and":[45,74,83],"states,":[46],"we":[47],"show":[48,68],"decline":[51],"black":[56,90,121],"males":[57],"begins":[58],"with":[59,98],"start":[61],"epidemic.":[65],"also":[67],"there":[70],"are":[71,86],"higher":[72],"murder":[73],"incarceration":[75],"rates":[76],"after":[77],"these":[85],"predictive":[87],"lower":[89],"high":[91,123],"school":[92,124],"completion":[93,125],"rates,":[94],"result":[96],"consistent":[97],"human":[99],"capital":[100],"theory.":[101],"estimate":[103],"effects":[105],"related":[106],"can":[110],"account":[111],"approximately":[113],"40%":[114],"70%":[116],"fall":[119],"male":[122],"rates.":[126]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":9},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-10-14T16:39:01.820549","created_date":"2025-10-10T00:00:00"}