{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2139169933","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","title":"When Do Scientists Become Entrepreneurs? The Social Structural Antecedents of Commercial Activity in the Academic Life Sciences","display_name":"When Do Scientists Become Entrepreneurs? The Social Structural Antecedents of Commercial Activity in the Academic Life Sciences","publication_year":2006,"publication_date":"2006-07-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2139169933","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","mag":"2139169933","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17526160"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1086/502691","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S122471516","display_name":"American Journal of Sociology","issn_l":"0002-9602","issn":["0002-9602","1537-5390"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","fnege-1","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315672","host_organization_name":"University of Chicago Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315672","https://openalex.org/P4310315690"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["University of Chicago Press","University of Chicago"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Journal of Sociology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5032016061","display_name":"Toby E. Stuart","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3858-1360","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3858-1360"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I78577930","display_name":"Columbia University","ror":"https://ror.org/00hj8s172","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I78577930"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Toby\u00a0E. Stuart","raw_affiliation_strings":["Columbia Business School, USA. tstuart@hbs.edu","Columbia Business School"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Columbia Business School, USA. tstuart@hbs.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I78577930"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Columbia Business School","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I78577930"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5040119457","display_name":"Waverly W. Ding","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9352-2091","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9352-2091"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I95457486","display_name":"University of California, Berkeley","ror":"https://ror.org/01an7q238","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I95457486"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Waverly\u00a0W. Ding","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of California, Berkeley"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of California, Berkeley","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I95457486"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":53.2462,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":735,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99921541,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"112","issue":"1","first_page":"97","last_page":"144"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10058","display_name":"Entrepreneurship Studies and Influences","score":0.9883000254631042,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10058","display_name":"Entrepreneurship Studies and Influences","score":0.9883000254631042,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14185","display_name":"Research, Science, and Academia","score":0.00430000014603138,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1802","display_name":"Information Systems and Management"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/18","display_name":"Decision Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13492","display_name":"Science, Technology, and Education in Latin America","score":0.0024999999441206455,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3317","display_name":"Demography"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/academic-entrepreneurship","display_name":"university entrepreneurship","score":0.5389999747276306},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biotechnology-industry","display_name":"biotechnology industry","score":0.5730000138282776},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/commercial-science","display_name":"commercial science","score":0.5799999833106995},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/social-influence","display_name":"social influence","score":0.5299999713897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/socialization","display_name":"socialization","score":0.871999979019165},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/status-dynamics","display_name":"status dynamics","score":0.9760000109672546},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/proximity-effect","display_name":"proximity effect","score":0.6230000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/university-scientists","display_name":"university scientists","score":0.3700000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scientific-advisory-board","display_name":"scientific advisory board","score":0.628000020980835}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C25032326","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q185467","display_name":"Socialization","level":2,"score":0.6301389932632446},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C84309077","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3908516","display_name":"Entrepreneurship","level":2,"score":0.5410794615745544},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.43784651160240173},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C181622380","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q26911","display_name":"Profit (economics)","level":2,"score":0.43531301617622375},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.39480966329574585},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.3717888295650482},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162853370","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39809","display_name":"Marketing","level":1,"score":0.3591250777244568},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144133560","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4830453","display_name":"Business","level":0,"score":0.2934499680995941},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.2523996829986572},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.23671022057533264},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.20215511322021484},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C10138342","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q43015","display_name":"Finance","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C175444787","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q39072","display_name":"Microeconomics","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D001690","descriptor_name":"Biological Science Disciplines","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D001690","descriptor_name":"Biological Science Disciplines","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D001690","descriptor_name":"Biological Science Disciplines","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002321","descriptor_name":"Career Choice","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002321","descriptor_name":"Career Choice","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D002321","descriptor_name":"Career Choice","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012108","descriptor_name":"Research Personnel","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012108","descriptor_name":"Research Personnel","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D012108","descriptor_name":"Research Personnel","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D014481","descriptor_name":"United States","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D014481","descriptor_name":"United States","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D014481","descriptor_name":"United States","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D016016","descriptor_name":"Proportional Hazards Models","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D016016","descriptor_name":"Proportional Hazards Models","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D016016","descriptor_name":"Proportional Hazards Models","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017150","descriptor_name":"Public Sector","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017150","descriptor_name":"Public Sector","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D017150","descriptor_name":"Public Sector","qualifier_ui":"Q000266","qualifier_name":"history","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D049673","descriptor_name":"History, 20th Century","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D049673","descriptor_name":"History, 20th Century","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D049673","descriptor_name":"History, 20th Century","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false}],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1086/502691","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1086/502691","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S122471516","display_name":"American Journal of Sociology","issn_l":"0002-9602","issn":["0002-9602","1537-5390"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","fnege-1","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315672","host_organization_name":"University of Chicago Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315672","https://openalex.org/P4310315690"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["University of Chicago Press","University of Chicago"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Journal of Sociology","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:17526160","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17526160","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"AJS; American journal of sociology","raw_type":"Historical Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.379.20","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.379.20","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://haas.berkeley.edu/faculty/papers/ding10_when do scienitsts become entrepreneurs.pdf","raw_type":"text"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8","score":0.6452000141143799}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"display_name":"Decent work and economic growth","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/8","score":0.699999988079071}],"study_designs":[{"display_name":"Observational Study","id":"https://openalex.org/study-designs/observational-study"}],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":84,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W20066928","https://openalex.org/W37415590","https://openalex.org/W421174974","https://openalex.org/W1485623843","https://openalex.org/W1490781083","https://openalex.org/W1516953971","https://openalex.org/W1519367410","https://openalex.org/W1540834533","https://openalex.org/W1546171873","https://openalex.org/W1556348243","https://openalex.org/W1578792251","https://openalex.org/W1656006743","https://openalex.org/W1963998475","https://openalex.org/W1966472199","https://openalex.org/W1968619893","https://openalex.org/W1969755082","https://openalex.org/W1972922514","https://openalex.org/W1975643561","https://openalex.org/W1979020186","https://openalex.org/W1984744191","https://openalex.org/W1994918139","https://openalex.org/W1995924881","https://openalex.org/W1999782258","https://openalex.org/W1999875590","https://openalex.org/W2000281623","https://openalex.org/W2000716096","https://openalex.org/W2014740757","https://openalex.org/W2024689521","https://openalex.org/W2026525925","https://openalex.org/W2030522563","https://openalex.org/W2037793529","https://openalex.org/W2051961812","https://openalex.org/W2053301665","https://openalex.org/W2056710466","https://openalex.org/W2060054927","https://openalex.org/W2060349825","https://openalex.org/W2062021443","https://openalex.org/W2066170488","https://openalex.org/W2073018323","https://openalex.org/W2088462245","https://openalex.org/W2089644168","https://openalex.org/W2091777293","https://openalex.org/W2094853121","https://openalex.org/W2097761061","https://openalex.org/W2109576757","https://openalex.org/W2115605638","https://openalex.org/W2131372960","https://openalex.org/W2142701897","https://openalex.org/W2144819302","https://openalex.org/W2144913747","https://openalex.org/W2151621121","https://openalex.org/W2154836650","https://openalex.org/W2155532909","https://openalex.org/W2156556238","https://openalex.org/W2157300266","https://openalex.org/W2163848058","https://openalex.org/W2165780470","https://openalex.org/W2167651468","https://openalex.org/W2169909283","https://openalex.org/W2171720857","https://openalex.org/W2300837484","https://openalex.org/W2313537744","https://openalex.org/W2321650456","https://openalex.org/W2323300517","https://openalex.org/W2323582883","https://openalex.org/W2326400185","https://openalex.org/W2330238068","https://openalex.org/W2332788249","https://openalex.org/W2481127840","https://openalex.org/W2483098039","https://openalex.org/W2570777872","https://openalex.org/W2608560640","https://openalex.org/W2797105966","https://openalex.org/W3020919415","https://openalex.org/W3081782055","https://openalex.org/W3121216328","https://openalex.org/W3121527737","https://openalex.org/W3125114792","https://openalex.org/W3125845682","https://openalex.org/W3164791510","https://openalex.org/W4239870143","https://openalex.org/W4243739157","https://openalex.org/W4244387885","https://openalex.org/W4301515008"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7099714027","https://openalex.org/W2033305348","https://openalex.org/W2779090931","https://openalex.org/W7097769742","https://openalex.org/W7100265575","https://openalex.org/W2113757802","https://openalex.org/W2095699965","https://openalex.org/W1985497168","https://openalex.org/W3121986098","https://openalex.org/W7097849033"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0],"authors":[1,96],"examine":[2,48],"the":[3,26,65,84,95,100],"conditions":[4],"prompting":[5],"university-employed":[6],"life":[7],"scientists":[8],"to":[9,13,47,51,59,61,91,125],"become":[10],"entrepreneurs,":[11],"defined":[12],"occur":[14],"when":[15],"a":[16,20,31,113],"scientist":[17],"(1)":[18],"founds":[19],"biotechnology":[21,33],"company,":[22],"or":[23],"(2)":[24],"joins":[25],"scientific":[27],"advisory":[28],"board":[29],"of":[30,40,105,115,123],"new":[32],"firm.":[34],"This":[35],"study":[36,70],"draws":[37],"on":[38],"theories":[39],"social":[41],"influence,":[42],"socialization,":[43],"and":[44,108],"status":[45],"dynamics":[46],"how":[49,73],"proximity":[50,74],"colleagues":[52,107],"in":[53],"commercial":[54,103],"science":[55,81,104],"influences":[56,120],"individuals'":[57,106],"propensity":[58],"transition":[60],"entrepreneurship.":[62],"To":[63],"expose":[64],"mechanisms":[66],"at":[67],"work,":[68],"this":[69],"also":[71],"assesses":[72],"effects":[75],"change":[76],"over":[77],"time":[78],"as":[79,110,112],"for-profit":[80,126],"diffuses":[82],"through":[83],"academy.":[85],"Using":[86],"adjusted":[87],"proportional":[88],"hazards":[89,122],"models":[90],"analyze":[92],"case-cohort":[93],"data,":[94],"find":[97],"evidence":[98],"that":[99],"orientation":[101],"toward":[102],"coauthors,":[109],"well":[111],"number":[114],"other":[116],"workplace":[117],"attributes,":[118],"significantly":[119],"scientists'":[121],"transitioning":[124],"science.":[127]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":14},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":19},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":46},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":35},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":32},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":39},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":44},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":39},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":50},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":50},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":40},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":52},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":47},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":26},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":48}],"updated_date":"2026-10-25T09:29:13.331239","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}