{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2132575282","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","title":"Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning about Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies","display_name":"Unpacking the Black Box of Causality: Learning about Causal Mechanisms from Experimental and Observational Studies","publication_year":2011,"publication_date":"2011-11-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2132575282","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","mag":"2132575282"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1017/s0003055411000414","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S176007004","display_name":"American Political Science Review","issn_l":"0003-0554","issn":["0003-0554","1537-5943"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Political Science Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":true,"oa_status":"green","oa_url":"http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:38057813","any_repository_has_fulltext":true},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5015451961","display_name":"Kosuke Imai","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2748-1022","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2748-1022","https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5620-9442"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I20089843","display_name":"Princeton University","ror":"https://ror.org/00hx57361","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"KOSUKE IMAI","raw_affiliation_strings":["Princeton University","Princeton University#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Princeton University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Princeton University#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I20089843"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5000727957","display_name":"Luke J Keele","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3859-2713","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3859-2713"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I130769515","display_name":"Pennsylvania State University","ror":"https://ror.org/04p491231","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"LUKE KEELE","raw_affiliation_strings":["Pennsylvania State University","Pennsylvania State Univ#TAB#"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pennsylvania State University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"Pennsylvania State Univ#TAB#","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515"]}]},{"author_position":"middle","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5002798141","display_name":"Dustin H. Tingley","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2216-6293","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2216-6293"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","display_name":"Harvard University","ror":"https://ror.org/03vek6s52","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"DUSTIN TINGLEY","raw_affiliation_strings":["Harvard University"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Harvard University","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027392119","display_name":"Teppei Yamamoto","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8079-7675","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8079-7675"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I63966007","display_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","ror":"https://ror.org/042nb2s44","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63966007"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"TEPPEI YAMAMOTO","raw_affiliation_strings":["Massachusetts Institute of Technology"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I63966007"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":4,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5000727957","https://openalex.org/A5002798141","https://openalex.org/A5015451961","https://openalex.org/A5027392119"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I130769515","https://openalex.org/I136199984","https://openalex.org/I20089843","https://openalex.org/I63966007"],"apc_list":{"value":3550,"currency":"USD","value_usd":3550},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":41.9696,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":1608,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99864998,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"105","issue":"4","first_page":"765","last_page":"789"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10845","display_name":"Advanced Causal Inference Techniques","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10845","display_name":"Advanced Causal Inference Techniques","score":0.9994999766349792,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2613","display_name":"Statistics and Probability"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/26","display_name":"Mathematics"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13051","display_name":"Qualitative Comparative Analysis Research","score":9.999999747378752e-05,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10778","display_name":"Philosophy of Biology and Scientific Explanation","score":9.999999747378752e-05,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/causal-mechanisms","display_name":"causal mechanisms","score":0.9980000257492065},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/causal-mediation-analysis","display_name":"causal mediation analysis","score":0.753000020980835},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/mediation-effect-estimation","display_name":"mediation effect estimation","score":0.7059999704360962},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/sensitivity-analysis","display_name":"sensitivity analysis","score":0.828000009059906},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/study-design","display_name":"research design","score":0.4650000035762787},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/randomization","display_name":"randomization","score":0.5450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intermediate-variables","display_name":"intermediate variables","score":0.6449999809265137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/media-framing","display_name":"media framing","score":0.8809999823570251},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/incumbency-advantage","display_name":"incumbency advantage","score":0.843999981880188},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/observational-studies","display_name":"observational studies","score":0.44600000977516174},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/experimental-study","display_name":"experimental study","score":0.5419999957084656}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777256151","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7897273","display_name":"Unpacking","level":2,"score":0.764437198638916},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C158600405","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5054566","display_name":"Causal inference","level":2,"score":0.7496727108955383},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C23131810","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q818574","display_name":"Observational study","level":2,"score":0.6597160696983337},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C64357122","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1149766","display_name":"Causality (physics)","level":2,"score":0.6564630270004272},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11671645","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5054567","display_name":"Causal model","level":2,"score":0.6559222936630249},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C179420905","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q223871","display_name":"Mediation","level":2,"score":0.5708341598510742},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C26831200","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16963953","display_name":"Marginal structural model","level":3,"score":0.5202652215957642},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.5077074766159058},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C177264268","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1514741","display_name":"Set (abstract data type)","level":2,"score":0.4700081944465637},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.4667295217514038},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C169087156","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2131593","display_name":"Framing (construction)","level":2,"score":0.4438023865222931},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2987525970","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96374569","display_name":"Causal analysis","level":2,"score":0.4286607801914215},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.41216087341308594},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C163504300","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2364925","display_name":"Causal structure","level":2,"score":0.41214054822921753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C33923547","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q395","display_name":"Mathematics","level":0,"score":0.18002218008041382},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C105795698","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12483","display_name":"Statistics","level":1,"score":0.15659385919570923},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.12369614839553833},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C62520636","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q944","display_name":"Quantum mechanics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C121332964","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q413","display_name":"Physics","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C66938386","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q633538","display_name":"Structural engineering","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199360897","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9143","display_name":"Programming language","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C36289849","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749","display_name":"Social science","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":7,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1017/s0003055411000414","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000414","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S176007004","display_name":"American Political Science Review","issn_l":"0003-0554","issn":["0003-0554","1537-5943"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Political Science Review","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.296.2625","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.296.2625","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://www.personal.psu.edu/ljk20/mediationP.pdf","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:CiteSeerX.psu:10.1.1.452.9162","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.452.9162","pdf_url":null,"source":null,"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"http://web.mit.edu/teppei/www/research/mediationP.pdf","raw_type":"text"},{"id":"pmh:oai:dash.harvard.edu:1/38057813","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:38057813","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401540","display_name":"Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","host_organization_name":"Harvard University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Am Polit Sci Rev","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:RePEc:cup:apsrev:v:105:y:2011:i:04:p:765-789_00","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055411000414/type/journal_article","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401271","display_name":"RePEc: Research Papers in Economics","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I77793887","host_organization_name":"Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I77793887"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":null,"raw_type":"article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:dspace.mit.edu:1721.1/84065","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/84065","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306400425","display_name":"DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I63966007","host_organization_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I63966007"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by-nc","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by-nc","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"MIT Web Domain","raw_type":"Article"},{"id":"mag:120132810","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://imai.princeton.edu/talk/files/Northwestern11.pdf","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S176007004","display_name":"American Political Science Review","issn_l":"0003-0554","issn":["0003-0554","1537-5943"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","erih-plus","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":null,"is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"American Political Science Review","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":{"id":"pmh:oai:dash.harvard.edu:1/38057813","doi":null,"is_oa":true,"landing_page_url":"http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:38057813","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306401540","display_name":"Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I136199984","host_organization_name":"Harvard University","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I136199984"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":"cc-by","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/cc-by","version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"Am Polit Sci Rev","raw_type":"Journal Article"},"sustainable_development_goals":[{"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions","id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.47620001435279846}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":92,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W37092016","https://openalex.org/W94529337","https://openalex.org/W274630852","https://openalex.org/W645342318","https://openalex.org/W1490576214","https://openalex.org/W1497013238","https://openalex.org/W1499939444","https://openalex.org/W1501375624","https://openalex.org/W1504331646","https://openalex.org/W1513261862","https://openalex.org/W1531406273","https://openalex.org/W1577430189","https://openalex.org/W1588493876","https://openalex.org/W1597230962","https://openalex.org/W1600999817","https://openalex.org/W1606650805","https://openalex.org/W1640894779","https://openalex.org/W1665228730","https://openalex.org/W1730782591","https://openalex.org/W1864058090","https://openalex.org/W1966981305","https://openalex.org/W1971440513","https://openalex.org/W1973285887","https://openalex.org/W1976876708","https://openalex.org/W1977442282","https://openalex.org/W1978108654","https://openalex.org/W1978469792","https://openalex.org/W1986632071","https://openalex.org/W1993211119","https://openalex.org/W1993302203","https://openalex.org/W2008417518","https://openalex.org/W2010143351","https://openalex.org/W2016909185","https://openalex.org/W2028912616","https://openalex.org/W2046782908","https://openalex.org/W2048819216","https://openalex.org/W2056621649","https://openalex.org/W2060514663","https://openalex.org/W2077226100","https://openalex.org/W2094736317","https://openalex.org/W2098782237","https://openalex.org/W2103130810","https://openalex.org/W2107770828","https://openalex.org/W2109416443","https://openalex.org/W2109944962","https://openalex.org/W2113102853","https://openalex.org/W2114385529","https://openalex.org/W2119346805","https://openalex.org/W2122472737","https://openalex.org/W2123295839","https://openalex.org/W2123901033","https://openalex.org/W2126702353","https://openalex.org/W2127230573","https://openalex.org/W2130649638","https://openalex.org/W2131379912","https://openalex.org/W2132917208","https://openalex.org/W2132999941","https://openalex.org/W2133554893","https://openalex.org/W2134827477","https://openalex.org/W2136999415","https://openalex.org/W2138290169","https://openalex.org/W2139519757","https://openalex.org/W2139577967","https://openalex.org/W2141598607","https://openalex.org/W2142135468","https://openalex.org/W2142814345","https://openalex.org/W2143578333","https://openalex.org/W2144336235","https://openalex.org/W2149232625","https://openalex.org/W2154088859","https://openalex.org/W2159250033","https://openalex.org/W2160610058","https://openalex.org/W2161942246","https://openalex.org/W2168031754","https://openalex.org/W2266640656","https://openalex.org/W2313470939","https://openalex.org/W2316496001","https://openalex.org/W2323443003","https://openalex.org/W2325691286","https://openalex.org/W2326570151","https://openalex.org/W2330381536","https://openalex.org/W2486299719","https://openalex.org/W2612427489","https://openalex.org/W3098254788","https://openalex.org/W3121473748","https://openalex.org/W3123223998","https://openalex.org/W3125554979","https://openalex.org/W3125617973","https://openalex.org/W4212765250","https://openalex.org/W4285719527","https://openalex.org/W4388322752","https://openalex.org/W4398934861"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7100903609","https://openalex.org/W7097129272","https://openalex.org/W7098206116","https://openalex.org/W2109416443","https://openalex.org/W120132810","https://openalex.org/W7100958286","https://openalex.org/W2885403954","https://openalex.org/W4223972564","https://openalex.org/W2133554893","https://openalex.org/W4320488707"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Identifying":[0],"causal":[1,26,36,64,79,105,134],"mechanisms":[2,37,65,135],"is":[3,55,66,142],"a":[4,25,84,100,111,123],"fundamental":[5],"goal":[6],"of":[7,63,87,93,117,122],"social":[8],"science.":[9],"Researchers":[10],"seek":[11],"to":[12,69,75,119],"study":[13,62],"not":[14],"only":[15],"whether":[16],"one":[17],"variable":[18],"affects":[19],"another":[20],"but":[21],"also":[22,56],"how":[23],"such":[24],"relationship":[27],"arises.":[28],"Yet":[29],"commonly":[30],"used":[31],"statistical":[32],"methods":[33],"for":[34,103,113,132],"identifying":[35,133],"rely":[38],"upon":[39],"untestable":[40],"assumptions":[41,88],"and":[42,52,95,98,148],"are":[43],"often":[44],"inappropriate":[45],"even":[46],"under":[47,90,136],"those":[48],"assumptions.":[49,138],"Randomizing":[50],"treatment":[51],"intermediate":[53],"variables":[54],"insufficient.":[57],"Despite":[58],"these":[59],"difficulties,":[60],"the":[61,115],"too":[67],"important":[68],"abandon.":[70],"We":[71],"make":[72],"three":[73],"contributions":[74],"improve":[76],"research":[77,130],"on":[78],"mechanisms.":[80],"First,":[81],"we":[82,109,127],"present":[83],"minimum":[85],"set":[86],"required":[89],"standard":[91],"designs":[92,131],"experimental":[94],"observational":[96],"studies":[97],"develop":[99],"general":[101],"algorithm":[102],"estimating":[104],"mediation":[106],"effects.":[107],"Second,":[108],"provide":[110],"method":[112],"assessing":[114],"sensitivity":[116],"conclusions":[118],"potential":[120],"violations":[121],"key":[124],"assumption.":[125],"Third,":[126],"offer":[128],"alternative":[129],"weaker":[137],"The":[139],"proposed":[140],"approach":[141],"illustrated":[143],"using":[144],"media":[145],"framing":[146],"experiments":[147],"incumbency":[149],"advantage":[150],"studies.":[151]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":126},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":131},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":148},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":113},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":131},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":140},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":162},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":138},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":99},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":81},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":95},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":84},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":51},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":59},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":32}],"updated_date":"2026-11-07T11:25:07.637180","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
