{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2092641801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","title":"Why the Gene Patenting Controversy Persists","display_name":"Why the Gene Patenting Controversy Persists","publication_year":2002,"publication_date":"2002-12-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2092641801","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","mag":"2092641801","pmid":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12480648"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S19793444","display_name":"Academic Medicine","issn_l":"1040-2446","issn":["1040-2446","1938-808X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315671","host_organization_name":"Lippincott Williams & Wilkins","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315671","https://openalex.org/P4310318547"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Lippincott Williams & Wilkins","Wolters Kluwer"],"type":"journal"},"license":"public-domain","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/public-domain","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Academic Medicine","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref","pubmed"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5027758553","display_name":"Rebecca S. Eisenberg","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I27837315","display_name":"University of Michigan","ror":"https://ror.org/00jmfr291","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I27837315"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Rebecca S. Eisenberg","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1215, USA. rse@umich.edu","48109-1215"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Michigan Law School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1215, USA. rse@umich.edu","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27837315"]},{"raw_affiliation_string":"48109-1215","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5027758553"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I27837315"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":1.4382,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":22,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.88821273,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":false},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":97},"biblio":{"volume":"77","issue":"Supplement","first_page":"1381","last_page":"1387"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10856","display_name":"Intellectual Property and Patents","score":0.7378000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10856","display_name":"Intellectual Property and Patents","score":0.7378000020980835,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13842","display_name":"Intellectual Property Law","score":0.22949999570846558,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13851","display_name":"Law, AI, and Intellectual Property","score":0.006200000178068876,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1702","display_name":"Artificial Intelligence"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/17","display_name":"Computer Science"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/3","display_name":"Physical Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/gene-patenting","display_name":"gene patenting","score":0.9520000219345093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/patent-eligibility","display_name":"patent eligibility","score":0.6290000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biotechnology-patents","display_name":"biotechnology patents","score":0.5989999771118164},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human-genome-project","display_name":"Human Genome Project","score":0.6949999928474426},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/expressed-sequence-tags","display_name":"expressed sequence tags","score":0.8040000200271606},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/public-controversy","display_name":"public controversy","score":0.39100000262260437},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/therapeutic-proteins","display_name":"therapeutic proteins","score":0.37299999594688416},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/intellectual-property-in-biotechnology","display_name":"intellectual property in biotechnology","score":0.35199999809265137}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779218306","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7144529","display_name":"Patentable subject matter","level":5,"score":0.4813164472579956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777855551","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12310021","display_name":"Subject (documents)","level":2,"score":0.44939783215522766},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.43315401673316956},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780719617","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1030752","display_name":"Salient","level":2,"score":0.4300631880760193},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C190253527","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q295354","display_name":"Law and economics","level":1,"score":0.35731038451194763},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C39549134","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133080","display_name":"Public relations","level":1,"score":0.34508997201919556},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.2670356333255768},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C34974158","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q131257","display_name":"Intellectual property","level":2,"score":0.25931334495544434},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C144024400","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21201","display_name":"Sociology","level":0,"score":0.25921186804771423},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780697943","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7144533","display_name":"Patentability","level":4,"score":0.20880717039108276},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2984145337","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q253623","display_name":"Patent law","level":3,"score":0.10885488986968994},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161191863","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199655","display_name":"Library science","level":1,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[{"descriptor_ui":"D006801","descriptor_name":"Humans","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010067","descriptor_name":"Ownership","qualifier_ui":"Q000331","qualifier_name":"legislation & jurisprudence","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D010330","descriptor_name":"Patents as Topic","qualifier_ui":"Q000331","qualifier_name":"legislation & jurisprudence","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D014481","descriptor_name":"United States","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D015316","descriptor_name":"Genetic Therapy","qualifier_ui":"Q000331","qualifier_name":"legislation & jurisprudence","is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D025202","descriptor_name":"Molecular Diagnostic Techniques","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D033161","descriptor_name":"Government Regulation","qualifier_ui":null,"qualifier_name":null,"is_major_topic":false},{"descriptor_ui":"D034462","descriptor_name":"Dissent and Disputes","qualifier_ui":"Q000331","qualifier_name":"legislation & jurisprudence","is_major_topic":true},{"descriptor_ui":"D036281","descriptor_name":"Genetic Research","qualifier_ui":"Q000331","qualifier_name":"legislation & jurisprudence","is_major_topic":true}],"locations_count":3,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200212001-00009","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S19793444","display_name":"Academic Medicine","issn_l":"1040-2446","issn":["1040-2446","1938-808X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-a","doyens","jufo-1","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-1","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310315671","host_organization_name":"Lippincott Williams & Wilkins","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310315671","https://openalex.org/P4310318547"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Lippincott Williams & Wilkins","Wolters Kluwer"],"type":"journal"},"license":"public-domain","license_id":"https://openalex.org/licenses/public-domain","version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Academic Medicine","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"pmid:12480648","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12480648","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306525036","display_name":"PubMed","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I1299303238","host_organization_name":"National Institutes of Health","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I1299303238"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Academic medicine : journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges","raw_type":"Journal Article"},{"id":"pmh:oai:repository.library.georgetown.edu:10822/522182","doi":null,"is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/10822/522182","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S4306402467","display_name":"DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library)","issn_l":null,"issn":null,"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/I4210145449","host_organization_name":"Center for Security and Emerging Technology","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/I4210145449"],"host_organization_lineage_names":[],"type":"repository"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"submittedVersion","is_accepted":false,"is_published":false,"raw_source_name":"252489","raw_type":null}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2017488605","https://openalex.org/W331109481","https://openalex.org/W4239719065","https://openalex.org/W304419020","https://openalex.org/W3125032218","https://openalex.org/W1508517421","https://openalex.org/W3215408441","https://openalex.org/W6958392106","https://openalex.org/W2412995663","https://openalex.org/W2079859282"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"A":[0,2853],"puzzling":[1],"aspect":[2],"of":[3,33,76,94,99,109,128,137,156,163,172,191,242,252,260,269,284,294,312,316,327,350,370,377,387,411,489,496,507,533,605,639,650,654,663,671,735,752,757,769,786,848,891,895,900,910,931,934,946,954,964,968,991,1000,1025,1054,1087,1091,1228,1265,1378,1482,1492,1496,1520,1549,1556,1563,1580,1602,1609,1675,1687,1707,1745,1747,1770,1775,1787,1810,1824,1853,1877,1895,1915,1923,1948,1959,1966,1970,1977,1983,2031,2064,2071,2084,2087,2119,2163,2174,2185,2193,2200,2251,2283,2309,2349,2355,2370,2393,2399,2457,2502,2535,2551,2559,2651,2673,2677,2697,2711,2873,2894,2903,2935,2940,2978,3009,3015,3027,3032,3054,3086,3095,3116,3127,3158,3178,3187,3223,3239,3248,3283,3291,3305,3312,3333,3359,3378,3382,3407,3429,3465,3510,3516,3524,3539,3548,3553,3610,3629,3633,3645,3654,3680,3693,3703,3725,3734,3788,3797,3839,3853,3870,3895,3955,3983,3995,4012,4042,4082,4113,4144,4152,4184,4197,4215,4246,4263],"the":[4,31,82,92,97,107,125,129,134,144,154,173,182,208,232,240,250,258,267,292,310,313,325,347,367,371,375,390,393,417,442,445,484,493,497,503,508,530,534,539,563,575,588,621,637,644,664,669,679,684,697,712,733,749,763,767,784,795,823,829,845,874,878,892,929,944,952,989,998,1012,1023,1052,1107,1121,1150,1183,1225,1238,1263,1272,1310,1369,1376,1451,1462,1484,1490,1497,1506,1518,1540,1547,1554,1577,1600,1607,1621,1630,1633,1651,1673,1680,1690,1714,1724,1743,1754,1768,1773,1792,1838,1851,1875,1878,1882,1893,1913,1920,1949,1964,1972,1981,2002,2005,2017,2029,2037,2045,2058,2068,2081,2117,2128,2154,2157,2191,2261,2307,2312,2318,2329,2338,2353,2359,2390,2397,2406,2473,2500,2533,2557,2575,2580,2583,2610,2648,2659,2664,2670,2695,2709,2718,2724,2733,2761,2772,2777,2788,2818,2842,2859,2871,2904,2925,2949,2976,2982,2989,3007,3013,3025,3036,3044,3052,3068,3083,3109,3114,3117,3125,3131,3140,3152,3156,3162,3176,3184,3188,3218,3231,3243,3249,3256,3278,3281,3288,3310,3316,3331,3352,3356,3364,3379,3416,3425,3434,3444,3448,3455,3463,3513,3519,3535,3540,3545,3551,3555,3573,3608,3616,3619,3625,3630,3646,3652,3677,3681,3701,3710,3723,3729,3746,3792,3798,3809,3816,3822,3825,3837,3851,3854,3876,3888,3912,3921,3931,3952,3956,3993,3996,4008,4013,4021,4038,4049,4071,4080,4111,4129,4159,4165,4168,4182,4204,4213,4222,4243,4259],"controversy":[5,52,116,183,365,2180],"over":[6,15,53,117,215,1670,2675],"patenting":[7,16,54,58,93,100,118,165,201,241,251,268,293,328,376,461,468,473,670,930,945,990,999,1571,2030,2098,2105,2111,2218,2321,2334,3034,4069],"genes":[8,55,101,202,243,329,358,380,462,564,589,631,699,796,862,969,993,1001,1402,1623,2032,2099,3528,3591,3696,3970],"has":[9,67,244,319,715,1454,1842,2289,3339,3999,4024,4059,4207],"been":[10,178,636,843,906,985,2923,3106,3136,3228,3603,3832,4086,4190],"its":[11,2136,3193,4210],"timing.":[12],"Other":[13],"controversies":[14],"new":[17,322,504,689,770,1048,1163,1167,1360,1405,2957,3182],"subject":[18,1591,2662],"matter\u2014such":[19],"as":[20,41,330,402,512,546,683,711,812,819,1170,1386,1393,1450,1526,1528,1595,1632,1710,2150,2161,2747,2771,2801,3572,3966],"microorganisms,":[21],"animals,":[22],"software,":[23],"and":[24,38,43,86,221,225,263,290,332,363,392,395,444,481,487,492,554,590,610,652,692,719,738,772,789,791,833,869,884,902,915,957,1046,1050,1067,1093,1185,1198,1207,1217,1242,1299,1397,1444,1522,1544,1552,1611,1789,1814,1898,2108,2141,2160,2187,2222,2237,2273,2299,2314,2494,2655,2686,2776,2807,2845,2889,2906,2946,3062,3071,3294,3303,3325,3431,3565,3569,3715,3777,3861,3923,4073,4097,4228],"business":[25,523,681,720],"methods\u2014have":[26],"typically":[27,837,1301,1628,1645],"erupted":[28],"promptly":[29],"upon":[30,324],"allowance":[32],"patents":[34,451,613,727,754,860,914,950,1103,1117,1138,1147,1240,1243,1713,1750,1765,1811,1825,1863,1886,1985,2467,2690,2811,2830,2950,2974,3011,3050,3091,3164,3171,3755,4090,4114],"in":[35,153,168,180,231,237,346,366,415,502,517,558,577,580,619,700,732,822,857,873,1070,1085,1143,1155,1285,1328,1353,1438,1510,1559,1617,1650,1700,1757,1800,1846,1848,1857,1868,1874,1968,2016,2044,2092,2190,2241,2260,2270,2296,2311,2358,2374,2396,2532,2569,2605,2703,2723,2787,2864,2892,2975,3018,3035,3079,3143,3151,3161,3175,3242,3246,3255,3280,3345,3354,3371,3427,3446,3480,3498,3663,3791,3815,3938,3949,3986,4105,4115,4124,4149,4180,4186,4194],"these":[36,317,400,457,567,599,606,659,708,853,974,982,1096,1130,1156,1214,1233,1245,1618,2276,3718],"areas,":[37],"then":[39,2919],"diminished":[40],"people":[42,883],"institutions":[44,885],"got":[45],"used":[46,755,3657,3804],"to":[47,288,413,544,556,573,583,597,625,676,702,761,782,792,859,918,938,943,961,1014,1033,1037,1065,1077,1106,1119,1139,1160,1174,1179,1223,1279,1303,1313,1334,1345,1349,1355,1365,1390,1422,1426,1441,1457,1472,1504,1512,1517,1569,1592,1647,1662,1678,1696,1722,1727,1803,1818,1832,1919,1944,2101,2156,2165,2203,2225,2234,2265,2274,2306,2382,2385,2389,2404,2415,2422,2433,2444,2465,2471,2479,2484,2513,2519,2527,2545,2578,2596,2640,2647,2656,2663,2679,2694,2708,2738,2749,2780,2823,2833,2838,2848,2851,2869,2879,2955,2988,3076,3081,3168,3181,3195,3236,3269,3299,3343,3362,3387,3395,3400,3412,3458,3494,3527,3586,3658,3695,3752,3773,3783,3807,3821,3846,3887,3909,3919,3934,3961,3963,3973,3977,4027,4036,4061,4067,4095,4122,4127,4139,4146,4157,4164,4175,4192,4233,4252],"it.":[48],"By":[49,561],"contrast,":[50],"public":[51,115,170,1531,2313,2789,3153,3617,3626],"initially":[56],"trailed":[57],"practice":[59,98,326,1024,1769],"by":[60,477,988,997,1231,1383,1639,2001,2009,2126,2134,2210,2613,2717,2767,2810,2866,3030,3043,3124,3272,3351,3369,3423,3432,3443,3475,3750,4033],"a":[61,198,300,321,385,404,521,603,616,867,962,1088,1162,1166,1171,1189,1252,1306,1319,1350,1428,1431,1439,1455,1468,1493,1603,1613,1729,1929,2183,2198,2204,2257,2346,2367,2447,2586,2642,2652,2741,2764,2802,2883,3064,3129,3237,3292,3335,3346,3405,3413,3481,3508,3558,3579,3596,3611,3735,3741,3760,3774,3840,3867,4019,4141],"decade":[62],"or":[63,465,967,1361,1364,1907,1974,2077,2542,2621,2645,3252],"more,":[64],"yet":[65,193,4060],"it":[66,211,841,1176,1465,1500,1717,1720,1738,1901,2056,2495,2634,3295,3576,3769,3902,3904,3940,3989,4171],"remained":[68],"remarkably":[69],"robust":[70],"ever":[71],"since,":[72],"despite":[73],"many":[74,926,1275,1667,2175,2213,2301,2590],"years":[75,127,239,369,2498,4009],"experience":[77],"with":[78,360,374,798,882,940,1022,1533,1561,1656,1660,1753,1767,1865,1933,2256,2815,2909,3277,3563,3642,3795,3893],"gene":[79,164,351,612,753,832,896,913,1102,1116,1570,1581,1749,1764,1862,2073,2093,2973,3010,3033,3549,3556,3620,3748,4068],"patents.":[80,897,1582],"Throughout":[81],"1980s,":[83],"while":[84,2572],"Congress1":[85],"commentators2":[87],"focused":[88],"concerned":[89],"attention":[90],"on":[91,143,309,452,630,696,852,861,1153,1244,1254,1262,1305,1375,1400,1430,1486,1812,1826,1850,1986,2004,2249,2378,2468,2538,2639,2967,3012,3051,3067,3108,3192,3676,3720,3756,3849,3874,3928,4091,4242],"living":[95],"things,":[96],"was":[102,836,2066,3366,3450,3561,3639,4016],"becoming":[103],"well":[104,1527,2431],"established":[105,206],"beneath":[106],"radar":[108],"media":[110],"attention.":[111],"The":[112,470,499,745,1583,1957,2060,2178,2245,2281,3088,3209,3258,3503,4135],"first":[113,145,750,846,893,1578,2006,2246,3367],"significant":[114,559],"DNA":[119,253,920,1281,1379,1586,1642,1827,1869,1916,1961,1967,2038,2253,2782,2797,2980,3056,3467,3784,3812,3843,3882,3944,4043,4083,4092,4216,4247],"sequences":[120,1828,2089,3538,4093],"did":[121,3743,4076],"not":[122,229,1099,1149,1221,1249,1437,1740,2067,2453,2462,2994,3022,3134,3327,3440,3744,3765,3780,3848,4077,4225],"erupt":[123],"until":[124,4079],"early":[126,233,368,3546],"Human":[130],"Genome":[131,2774],"Project,":[132],"when":[133,1101,1115,1318,3685,4010],"National":[135],"Institutes":[136],"Health":[138],"(NIH)":[139],"filed":[140,2000],"patent":[141,418,440,531,647,694,1010,1384,1408,1416,1429,1452,1485,1498,1507,1524,1550,1557,1615,1708,1793,1855,1883,1909,2048,2139,2247,2284,2339,2427,2843,2860,2884,2926,2983,3118,3189,3221,3313,3360,3398,3461,3491,3525,3588,3907,4005,4022,4046,4136,4240],"applications":[142,695,1999,3589,4241],"few":[146],"hundred":[147],"expressed":[148,2025,3029],"sequence":[149,1637,1652,2039,2783,2798,3600,3609,3739,3813,3945],"tags":[150],"(ESTs)":[151],"identified":[152,2008,4218],"laboratory":[155,1352,1712],"Dr.":[157],"Craig":[158,2010],"Venter.3":[159],"But":[160,710,1476,2589,2962,3684,3900],"if":[161,1477,2410,2582,2882],"critics":[162,909],"were":[166,228,341,437,548,552,571,816,996,1098,1991,2042,2170,3234,3530,3669,3698],"slow":[167,1683],"launching":[169],"discussion":[171],"issue,":[174],"they":[175,542,551,995,1006,1028,1259,2228,2411,2706,2745,2920,3102,3233,3542,3915],"have":[176,213,635,722,905,984,1261,2405,2510,2556,2727,2755,2922,3105,3135,3146,3227,3803,3831,3916,3935,4101,4118,4189],"certainly":[177],"persistent":[179],"keeping":[181],"alive.":[184],"What":[185],"accounts":[186],"for":[187,421,439,472,520,525,646,688,707,774,825,844,880,1109,1123,1137,1195,1268,1340,1407,1413,1446,1698,2075,2090,2239,2286,2320,2333,2345,2366,2450,2517,2567,2629,2701,2763,2804,2959,2972,3113,3213,3393,3490,3505,3518,3557,3594,3691,3740,3866,3906,4004],"this":[188,422,627,1537,1684,1734,2096,2211,2824,2880,2895,2963,3215,3261,3487,3499,3506,3686,3858,3929,4116,4132],"peculiar":[189],"pattern":[190],"delayed,":[192],"enduring,":[194],"controversy?":[195],"Although":[196,601,2209,2337,2425,2736],"at":[197,449,1323,2057,2563,2594,3230,4131],"formal":[199],"level":[200,3026],"looks":[203],"like":[204,467,1251,2104,2110,2938],"an":[205,408,1387,1701,2831,2968,3273,3389,3859,4001,4119],"practice,":[207],"interests":[209,1555,1744],"that":[210,227,256,272,340,406,429,541,565,728,747,886,949,1008,1030,1057,1074,1191,1209,1433,1574,1585,1653,1716,1742,1763,1861,1885,1905,1990,2041,2116,2446,2475,2626,2658,2720,2744,2812,2828,2858,2933,2951,2992,3049,3074,3090,3199,3206,3225,3264,3374,3403,3415,3469,3529,3606,3649,3665,3697,3732,3759,3992,4051,4058,4089,4100,4200,4221,4256],"implicates":[212],"shifted":[214],"time,":[216,3375],"bringing":[217,336],"different":[218,223,730,868,1942,2420,2423,2614],"stakeholders":[219],"forward":[220],"raising":[222,1980,3939],"concerns":[224],"arguments":[226,927,975,979,1061,1097],"salient":[230,1114],"days.":[234],"In":[235,456,1158,1733,3544,3722,3726,3834],"particular,":[236],"recent":[238],"raised":[245,343],"evolving":[246],"issues":[247,318],"concerning":[248,643,4212],"(1)":[249],"diagnostic":[254,813,921,1082,1124,1282,1341,1380,1587,1643,1731,1917,2078],"products":[255,1145,1234,1246,1290,1298,1588,1627,1644,2107,2714,2958,3097,3662,3682],"are":[257,273,282,1058,1062,1075,1148,1220,1277,1291,1300,1436,1480,1589,1629,1654,2402,2412,2418,2442,2691,2707,3165,3267,3779,3971],"object":[259],"mixed":[261,1089],"clinical":[262,903,1196],"research":[264,296,717,737,746,820,2021,2121,2196,2263,2271,2287,2303,2322,2379,2436,2458,2469,2487,2503,2521,2584,2607,2653,2681,2699,2936,3020,3478,3655],"use;":[265],"(2)":[266],"\u201cupstream\u201d":[270,1987],"discoveries":[271,808,1989,2040,2386,3061],"still":[274,1992,2229,2573],"some":[275,933,2426,2524],"distance":[276],"away":[277],"from":[278,432,1044,1182,1460,1546,1572,1783,1808,1822,1837,1995,2153,2197,2732,2876,2945,3204,3220,3460,3512,4161],"end-product":[279],"development":[280,768,1914],"but":[281,550,828,1112,2080,3112,3571,3873,4230],"nonetheless":[283],"immediate":[285,810,2082],"scientific":[286,2018,2112,2235,2725,3037,3896,4056,4074],"interest":[287,1756,3937],"researchers;":[289],"(3)":[291],"routine":[295,3284,3307,3580,3631,4244],"results":[297,2250,3053,3464],"obtained":[298],"through":[299,434,803,2138,2439,2549,3155,3309,3700,4209,4219],"mechanized":[301,3482],"process":[302,1190,1686,3552],"requiring":[303],"no":[304,1934,2053,2916,3098],"more":[305,464,724,986,1367,1596,1834,2109,2148,2205,2326,2330,2603,2854,3069,3674,3943,4054,4260],"than":[306,840,994,1296,1344,1889,2133,2328,2705,3101,3672,4188],"ordinary":[307,3240,3789,3871],"skill":[308,3241,3790],"part":[311],"inventors.":[314,4265],"Each":[315],"cast":[320],"light":[323,3247],"science":[331,714,2202,2357],"technology":[333,2990],"move":[334],"forward,":[335],"into":[337,1213,2619,3615,3624],"focus":[338,638],"questions":[339],"neither":[342],"nor":[344],"resolved":[345],"prior":[348,2649,3643,3855,3877,4223],"course":[349,3282,3714],"patenting.":[352],"PATENTING":[353,740,1952,3000],"GENES":[354,741,1953,3001],"AS":[355,742,1954,3002],"DRUGS":[356],"Patenting":[357,587],"began":[359,1118,3585,3689],"little":[361,364,2026,3496,3917,3936,4155,4173],"fanfare":[362],"biotechnology":[372,505,569,685,849,3661,4096],"industry,":[373,1840],"newly":[378,453,3841,3968],"cloned":[379,3531,3699],"encoding":[381,632,863,970,1002,1624,2033,3592],"therapeutic":[382,526,585,633,690,826,834,864,971,1110,1144,1172,1226,1297,1625,2034,2051,2076,2712,2941],"proteins.4":[383],"As":[384,2599,3942,4018],"matter":[386,4094],"legal":[388,666,2742],"doctrine,":[389],"courts":[391,443,3353],"Patent":[394,1998,3582],"Trademark":[396],"Office":[397],"(PTO)":[398],"treated":[399,1781],"inventions":[401,2221,2547,2875,3198,3224,3266,3320,3668],"chemicals,5":[403],"characterization":[405,790],"provided":[407],"extensive":[409],"body":[410],"precedent":[412,667],"consult":[414],"establishing":[416,1610],"ground":[419],"rules":[420,4130,4145,4160],"emerging":[423],"field.":[424],"Having":[425],"long":[426,1449,2347,2368,4085],"ago":[427],"decided":[428],"chemicals":[430],"isolated":[431,454],"nature":[433,3632],"human":[435,2129,4014],"intervention":[436,1491],"eligible":[438],"protection,6":[441],"PTO":[446,3932],"hardly":[447],"blinked":[448],"allowing":[450,2867,4250],"genes.":[455,765,3087],"early,":[458],"low-controversy":[459],"days,":[460],"looked":[463],"less":[466,838,870,1293,2103,2692,4177],"drugs.":[469],"case":[471,2319,2332,3724],"drugs,":[474],"although":[475,855,1871,2020],"disputed":[476],"some,":[478],"is":[479,1134,1177,1321,1419,1597,1739,1902,1927,2324,2461,2482,2661,2715,2835,2846,2857,2985,3041,3217,3263,3296,3507,3613,3621,3763,3770,3959,3990,4201],"straightforward":[480,839],"plausible,":[482,1872],"given":[483,1302,3981],"high":[485],"costs":[486,953,1194,1519,2672,3174,3203],"risks":[488],"drug":[490,514,1164,1432],"development7":[491],"avowed":[494],"patent-sensitivity":[495],"industry.8":[498],"gene-patenting":[500,2179,2721],"pioneers":[501],"firms":[506,570,608,674,2754,2795,2954,4099],"1980s":[509],"saw":[510],"themselves":[511,1084,3829],"high-technology":[513],"developers":[515],"and,":[516],"their":[518,1229,1255,1269,1336,1391,1415,1487,1858,2219,2242,2435,2552,2684,2750,2758,2874,2960,4034],"search":[519,824,1697],"viable":[522],"model":[524,682],"protein":[527,787,1626,3560,3612,3742],"development,":[528],"emulated":[529],"strategies":[532,718,1412,3656],"major":[535],"pharmaceutical":[536,2734,2753,2794],"firms.":[537],"Often":[538],"proteins":[540,576,634,691,760,3541,3593,3778],"sought":[543],"develop":[545,2956],"drugs":[547,947],"familiar,":[549],"difficult":[553,1721,2483,2637,3342],"costly":[555],"isolate":[557,3808],"quantities.":[560],"cloning":[562,3554,3634],"encoded":[566,2050],"proteins,":[568,865,2052,2942],"able":[572],"produce":[574],"recombinant":[578,591],"organisms":[579],"quantities":[581],"sufficient":[582],"meet":[584,1224],"needs.":[586],"materials":[592],"secured":[593],"profitable":[594,704,1411,2491],"exclusive":[595,705,916,1031],"franchises":[596],"manufacture":[598],"products.":[600,709,814,850,1619,2336],"only":[602,1151,4226],"handful":[604],"pioneering":[607],"survived":[609],"prospered,":[611],"undoubtedly":[614,2290],"played":[615,866],"critical":[617,2748],"role":[618,872],"attracting":[620],"necessary":[622,1178,1503,1725],"private":[623,2158,2226,2293,2315,2448],"investments":[624,2295,4104],"launch":[626],"industry.":[628],"Patents":[629,851,1399,2377],"numerous":[640],"judicial":[641,3376,3417],"opinions":[642,657],"requirements":[645],"protection,9":[648],"priority":[649],"invention,10":[651],"determinations":[653],"infringement.11":[655],"Judicial":[656],"resolving":[658],"disputes":[660],"provide":[661,2478],"most":[662,1635,2061,3967,4011],"existing":[665,3253],"involving":[668,3754],"DNA.":[672],"Some":[673],"continue":[675],"follow":[677],"essentially":[678],"same":[680,1631],"pioneers,":[686],"searching":[687],"filing":[693],"corresponding":[698,764,3065,3747,3810],"order":[701,1159,1354,1511,3080],"secure":[703,1467,1723,1819],"markets":[706],"underlying":[713,1370],"advanced,":[716],"models":[721],"become":[723,1502,2602,3148,3420,3706],"diverse,":[725],"generating":[726],"play":[729],"roles":[731],"economy":[734],"biomedical":[736,875,2120,2195,2262,2508],"practice.":[739,1925],"DIAGNOSTIC":[743],"PRODUCTS":[744],"yielded":[748],"generation":[751,847,894,1579],"knowledge":[756,3254,3733,3796],"therapeutically":[758],"useful":[759,818],"clone":[762],"Later,":[766],"tools":[771,821,2288,2323,2380,2437,2470,2477,2561,2700],"techniques":[773,4220],"detecting":[775],"genetic":[776,807,955,1019,1039,1081,1988,2698],"differences":[777,1128],"among":[778,3047,3898],"individuals":[779],"enabled":[780],"researchers":[781,2310,2416,2509,3787,4026],"bypass":[783],"stages":[785],"isolation":[788],"identify":[793,1356,1648],"directly":[794],"associated":[797,1655],"diseases":[799],"(or":[800,1165,1357,2816,3120],"disease":[801,912,992,1401,1604,1748,1975],"susceptibilities)":[802],"positional":[804],"cloning.12":[805],"These":[806,923,1060,2554,2667,4237],"had":[809,842,887,2023,2216,3384,3419,3601,3650,3705,4084],"value":[811,2063,2070,2083,2409,2474,2501,2872,3186],"They":[815,1372],"also":[817,1403,1903,2362,3622],"products,":[827,1111,1125,1918,2493],"relationship":[830],"between":[831,1129,1542],"product":[835,1996,2351,2540,2631,2646,2660,3667],"discoveries,":[854],"similar":[856,1820,3772,3782,3881,3976],"form":[858,2534,3177],"familiar":[871,2331],"community,":[876],"setting":[877],"stage":[879],"conflict":[881,1560],"barely":[888],"taken":[889],"note":[890],"Professional":[898],"societies":[899],"doctors":[901,1066,1327],"geneticists":[904,1068],"particularly":[907,1063,1284],"outspoken":[908],"both":[911],"licenses":[917,1032,2451,2544],"perform":[919,1018,1038,1280],"tests.13":[922],"groups":[924,983,1573],"advance":[925,1969],"against":[928,1508,2278],"genes,":[932],"which":[935,1841,2486,3447,3595],"would":[936,1829,1911,2122,2921,2943,2993,3103,3133,3226,3830,4109,4235],"seem":[937],"apply":[939,3344,4140,4176],"equal":[941],"force":[942],"(e.g.,":[948],"raise":[951,1404,2817],"tests":[956,1020,1040,1083,1381],"restrict":[958,1051,2383],"patient":[959],"access":[960,1661,2164,2233,2384,2518,2678,2822,3180],"type":[963],"medical":[965,1072,1266,1287,1330,1777,1813,1896,1924,4072],"care)":[966],"proteins.":[972,1004,2035],"Setting":[973],"aside,":[976],"two":[977,1131],"additional":[978],"suggest":[980],"why":[981,1776],"troubled":[987],"thereapeutic":[1003],"First,":[1005],"argue":[1007,1029],"giving":[1009],"owners":[1011,1385,1409,1551,1558,1746,2428],"right":[1013,1456],"limit":[1015,1211],"who":[1016,2417,2840,4108],"may":[1017,1260,1332,1466,1501,1665,2429,2496,2617,2635,2899],"interferes":[1021],"medicine.":[1026],"Second,":[1027],"large":[1034],"commercial":[1035,1351,1494,2587],"laboratories":[1036,1043,1219,1276,1676],"prevent":[1041],"other":[1042,1273,1691,1785,2953,3317,4169,4195],"identifying":[1045],"validating":[1047],"mutations":[1049,1363,1699,1715],"range":[1053],"testing":[1055,1197,1342,1681],"services":[1056,1790],"offered.":[1059],"compelling":[1064],"working":[1069,3160],"academic":[1071,1286,1329,1899,2176,2194,2214,2279,2792],"centers":[1073,1331],"equipped":[1076,1278,3794],"administer":[1078,2841],"\u201chome":[1079],"brew\u201d":[1080],"pursuit":[1086],"mission":[1090],"treatment":[1092],"research.":[1094,2244,2688],"That":[1095,2689,3786],"advanced":[1100],"related":[1104],"primarily":[1105,2800],"market":[1108,1122,1728,2449],"became":[1113,2147,3578],"affect":[1120],"reveals":[1126],"interesting":[1127],"markets.":[1132,1157,1215],"It":[1133,1418,2460,2481],"relatively":[1135,1420,2231,4039],"easy":[1136,3905,4040],"confer":[1140],"effective":[1141,1854],"monopolies":[1142],"because":[1146,3628,3901],"constraint":[1152,1253],"competition":[1154],"bring":[1161],"biologic":[1168],"such":[1169,1315,1668,2088,2600,2770,3306],"protein)":[1173],"market,":[1175],"get":[1180,3910],"approval":[1181],"Food":[1184],"Drug":[1186,1202],"Administration":[1187],"(FDA),":[1188],"entails":[1192],"considerable":[1193,3567,4103],"clearing":[1199],"administrative":[1200],"hurdles.":[1201],"manufacturing":[1203],"requires":[1204],"specialized":[1205],"facilities":[1206,1339],"know-how":[1208],"further":[1210,1605],"entry":[1212],"Doctors":[1216],"non-commercial":[1218,2570],"about":[1222,1368,1599,2028,3006,3534],"needs":[1227],"patients":[1230,1304],"making":[1232,1461,1719,2127,2560,2986,3214],"themselves,":[1235],"even":[1236,3286,3951],"after":[1237,3924],"relevant":[1239,3244],"expire,":[1241],"therefore":[1247,2931,2947,3297],"do":[1248,1679,2908,3207,3495],"feel":[1250,2808],"activities,":[1256],"whatever":[1257],"impact":[1258,3008],"cost":[1264,1325,2566,2819],"care":[1267,1395,1565],"patients.":[1270],"On":[1271,1689,3315,4167],"hand,":[1274,1692,3318,4170],"tests,":[1283],"centers.":[1288],"Diagnostic":[1289],"far":[1292,1993,2325],"extensively":[1294],"regulated":[1295],"one-time":[1307],"basis,":[1308],"minimizing":[1309],"non-patent":[1311],"obstacles":[1312],"performing":[1314],"tests.":[1316],"Even":[1317],"test":[1320],"available":[1322,1950,2132,2562,2786,3150,3948],"reasonable":[1324],"elsewhere,":[1326],"prefer":[1333],"use":[1335,2091,2240,2550,2568,2650,2702,2902,3014,3304,3702],"own":[1337,1488,2220,2243,2751],"institutions'":[1338],"rather":[1343,1888,3671],"ship":[1346],"samples":[1347],"off":[1348,2013,2918,3100],"look":[1358,2102],"for)":[1359],"rare":[1362],"learn":[1366],"disease.":[1371,1657],"see":[1373,2746,2796],"restrictions":[1374],"provision":[1377],"imposed":[1382,2612],"unaccustomed":[1388],"obstacle":[1389],"work":[1392,3073,3285,3497,4057,4245,4262],"health":[1394,1564],"providers":[1396,1786,2526,2616],"researchers.":[1398,2480],"challenges":[1406],"seeking":[1410],"deploying":[1414],"rights.":[1417],"simple":[1421],"figure":[1423],"out":[1424,4254],"how":[1425,2464],"deploy":[1427,2466],"end":[1434,1474,1478,2106,2335,2713],"users":[1435,1479,2592,2898,3094],"position":[1440,1616],"make":[1442,2514,2781,2907,3659,3745,3857],"safely":[1443],"effectively":[1445],"themselves.":[1447],"So":[1448],"owner":[1453,2577],"exclude":[1458,3459],"competitors":[1459,1545],"patented":[1463,1622,3096],"product,":[1464],"monopoly":[1469],"without":[1470,1489,2924,3287,3330],"having":[1471],"sue":[1473],"users.":[1475,2877],"capable":[1481],"infringing":[1483],"competitor":[1495],"owner,":[1499],"enforce":[1505],"them":[1509,1805,2224,2915,4251],"maintain":[1513],"profitability.":[1514],"This":[1515,1926,2145,3337,3636,3884],"adds":[1516],"monitoring":[1521],"enforcing":[1523,1612],"rights,":[1525],"creating":[1529],"bad":[1530],"relations":[1532],"potential":[1534,2897],"customers.":[1535],"Indeed,":[1536],"situation":[1538],"blurs":[1539],"distinction":[1541,3216],"customers":[1543],"perspective":[1548],"places":[1553],"those":[1562,2476,2839,3197,3202,3205,3666,4107],"providers,":[1566],"fueling":[1567],"opposition":[1568,2146,4066],"scarcely":[1575],"noticed":[1576],"fact":[1584,2719],"routinely":[1590],"incremental":[1593,1685,1866],"improvement":[1594],"learned":[1598],"genetics":[1601,3868],"aggravates":[1606],"problem":[1608],"lucrative":[1614],"While":[1620],"single":[1634],"prevalent":[1636],"carried":[1638],"healthy":[1640],"individuals,":[1641],"seek":[1646],"aberrations":[1649,1669],"Practicing":[1658],"physicians":[1659],"family":[1663],"pedigrees":[1664],"discover":[1666],"time.":[1671,2059],"Limiting":[1672],"number":[1674],"permitted":[1677],"could":[1682,1704,1940,3802],"discovery.":[1688,2094],"permitting":[1693,2135,2574],"multiple":[1694],"investigators":[1695],"uncoordinated":[1702],"fashion":[1703],"fragment":[1705],"ownership":[1706],"rights":[1709,1856,2269,2277],"each":[1711],"discovers,":[1718],"permissions":[1726],"comprehensive":[1730],"test.14":[1732],"challenging":[1735,3070,4055,4261],"strategic":[1736],"environment,":[1737],"clear":[1741,1935],"will":[1751,2489,4052,4257],"converge":[1752],"social":[1755,2408,3173],"promoting":[1758,2350,2371],"continuing":[1759],"technological":[1760,3401,3501],"progress.":[1761],"Arguments":[1762,1860],"interfere":[1766,1864,2814],"medicine":[1771],"beg":[1772],"question":[1774,1932,3823],"practitioners":[1778,1796,1897],"should":[1779],"be":[1780,1830,2123,2430,2636,2849,2996,3077,3270,3328,3441,3471,3974,4062],"differently":[1782],"any":[1784],"goods":[1788],"under":[1791],"laws.":[1794],"Medical":[1795],"succeeded":[1797],"once":[1798],"before":[1799,2499],"persuading":[1801,4125],"Congress":[1802,3370,3410],"grant":[1804],"special":[1806,3289],"relief":[1807],"enforcement":[1809,1823],"surgical":[1815],"techniques.15":[1816],"Efforts":[1817],"protection":[1821,2285,3222,3361,3399,3462,3492,4006],"likely":[1831,2403,3268,3960,3972],"encounter":[1833],"serious":[1835],"resistance":[1836],"genomics":[1839,4098,4187],"invested":[1843],"substantial":[1844],"resources":[1845,2512],"R&D":[1847,2704,2834],"reliance":[1849],"availability":[1852,2282],"discoveries.":[1859],"innovation":[1867,2865],"diagnostics,":[1870],"fly":[1873],"face":[1876],"strong":[1879],"presumption":[1880],"within":[1881,4070],"community":[1884,2264,2726],"promote,":[1887],"retard,":[1890],"progress.16":[1891],"Notwithstanding":[1892],"skepticism":[1894],"scientists,":[1900,2793],"plausible":[1904],"eliminating":[1906],"weakening":[1908],"incentives":[1910,2628],"retard":[1912],"long-run":[1921],"detriment":[1922],"ultimately":[1928],"complex":[1930],"empirical":[1931],"answer.":[1936],"Different":[1937],"starting":[1938],"intuitions":[1939],"lead":[1941,3962],"observers":[1943],"sharply":[1945],"divergent":[1946],"interpretations":[1947],"evidence.":[1951],"RESEARCH":[1955],"TOOLS":[1956],"advent":[1958],"high-throughput":[1960,2979,3055],"sequencing":[1962,1965,2254,3057,3468,4248],"facilitated":[1963],"understanding":[1971],"functions":[1973,3085],"relevance":[1976],"particular":[1978,2072,2643,3500],"sequences,":[1979,3980],"possibility":[1982],"obtaining":[1984,3334],"removed":[1994],"development.":[1997,2632],"NIH":[2003,2047,2155],"ESTs":[2007,2065],"Venter":[2011],"set":[2012,2171,3388,4143],"alarm":[2014],"bells":[2015],"community,17":[2019],"scientists":[2022,2215,2394,3048],"previously":[2024,3602,3978],"concern":[2027],"If":[2036],"claimed":[2043],"provocative":[2046],"filings":[2049,2248],"one":[2054,4162],"knew":[2055],"obvious":[2062,2463,3265,3749,3767,3860,4032],"speculative":[2069],"fragments":[2074],"uses,":[2079],"growing":[2085],"collections":[2086],"With":[2095],"shift,":[2097],"started":[2100],"information.":[2113],"Scientists":[2114],"argued":[2115],"progress":[2118,4148],"better":[2124],"served":[2125],"genome":[2130,2766,4015],"freely":[2131,2785,2998,3149],"balkanization":[2137],"claims":[2140,3526,3694,4047,4255],"restrictive":[2142,3953],"licensing":[2143,2223],"agreements.18":[2144],"vehement":[2149],"EST-sequencing":[2151],"moved":[2152],"sector,":[2159],"terms":[2162,2531,2555,2601,2676,3428],"privately":[2166],"held":[2167],"EST":[2168],"databases":[2169],"beyond":[2172],"reach":[2173],"institutions.19":[2177],"arose":[2181],"during":[2182,4007],"period":[2184],"rapid":[2186,2372],"uneasy":[2188],"change":[2189,4128],"culture":[2192],"tradition":[2199,2354,2398],"open":[2201,2356,2400],"restrictive,":[2206],"proprietary":[2207,2680],"enterprise.":[2208],"point":[2212],"begun":[2217],"firms,":[2227],"enjoyed":[2230,2728],"free":[2232],"information":[2236,2784,2799,3017,3533,3946],"methods":[2238,3806],"large-scale":[2252],"coincided":[2255],"broader":[2258],"trend":[2259],"claim":[2266],"intellectual":[2267],"property":[2268]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-10-31T12:09:11.096373","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
