{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2090281644","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","title":"The Limits of the Preponderance of the Evidence Standard: Justifiably Naked Statistical Evidence and Multiple Causation","display_name":"The Limits of the Preponderance of the Evidence Standard: Justifiably Naked Statistical Evidence and Multiple Causation","publication_year":1982,"publication_date":"1982-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2090281644","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","mag":"2090281644"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1086/491977","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104241220","display_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","issn_l":"0361-9486","issn":["0361-9486","2328-0212"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5108619458","display_name":"David H. Kaye","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7696-7216","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7696-7216"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I55732556","display_name":"Arizona State University","ror":"https://ror.org/03efmqc40","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I55732556"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"David Kaye","raw_affiliation_strings":["David Kaye is Professor of Law, Arizona State University. S.B., 1968, M.I.T"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"David Kaye is Professor of Law, Arizona State University. S.B., 1968, M.I.T","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55732556"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5108619458"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I55732556"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":3.1048,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":122,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.91734993,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":90,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"7","issue":"2","first_page":"487","last_page":"487"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11762","display_name":"Law, Economics, and Judicial Systems","score":0.5820000171661377,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2002","display_name":"Economics and Econometrics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11762","display_name":"Law, Economics, and Judicial Systems","score":0.5820000171661377,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2002","display_name":"Economics and Econometrics"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/20","display_name":"Economics, Econometrics and Finance"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14115","display_name":"Legal processes and jurisprudence","score":0.39309999346733093,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12982","display_name":"Legal principles and applications","score":0.018799999728798866,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-evidence","display_name":"statistical evidence","score":0.6740000247955322},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multiple-causation","display_name":"multiple causation","score":0.9380000233650208},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/multiple-defendants","display_name":"multiple defendants","score":0.7099999785423279},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/liability-allocation","display_name":"liability allocation","score":0.3700000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/statistical-decision-theory","display_name":"statistical decision theory","score":0.8180000185966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/tort-law","display_name":"tort law","score":0.4480000138282776}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C97460637","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q468489","display_name":"Plaintiff","level":2,"score":0.9324170351028442},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C166151441","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4923601","display_name":"Causation","level":2,"score":0.8291899561882019},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777381055","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q308922","display_name":"Damages","level":2,"score":0.7964508533477783},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777834853","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q96776939","display_name":"Liability","level":2,"score":0.5349553823471069},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.49799466133117676},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2993259228","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3320364","display_name":"Statistical evidence","level":3,"score":0.43986624479293823},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C527412718","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q855395","display_name":"Interpretation (philosophy)","level":2,"score":0.43136826157569885},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162118730","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1128453","display_name":"Actuarial science","level":1,"score":0.38591015338897705},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.3512558937072754},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C162324750","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8134","display_name":"Economics","level":0,"score":0.33172982931137085},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.29847919940948486},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.14484035968780518},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C149782125","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q160039","display_name":"Econometrics","level":1,"score":0.12942218780517578},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41895202","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q8162","display_name":"Linguistics","level":1,"score":0.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C191988596","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q628374","display_name":"Null hypothesis","level":2,"score":0.0}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1086/491977","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1086/491977","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104241220","display_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","issn_l":"0361-9486","issn":["0361-9486","2328-0212"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1982.tb00464.x","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1982.tb00464.x","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1982.tb00464.x","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S104241220","display_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","issn_l":"0361-9486","issn":["0361-9486","2328-0212"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":false,"listed_in":[],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311721","host_organization_name":"Cambridge University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311721","https://openalex.org/P4310311702"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Cambridge University Press","University of Cambridge"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"American Bar Foundation Research Journal","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":16,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W200124229","https://openalex.org/W1524515717","https://openalex.org/W1997026399","https://openalex.org/W2022924919","https://openalex.org/W2024026387","https://openalex.org/W2092574055","https://openalex.org/W2314210989","https://openalex.org/W2460815535","https://openalex.org/W2797977583","https://openalex.org/W2798040365","https://openalex.org/W3121179156","https://openalex.org/W3122317727","https://openalex.org/W3144739179","https://openalex.org/W6631253948","https://openalex.org/W6655996877","https://openalex.org/W6777604522"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W161016145","https://openalex.org/W4389976673","https://openalex.org/W3162360811","https://openalex.org/W1559093982","https://openalex.org/W2139086720","https://openalex.org/W2016111663","https://openalex.org/W2408649050","https://openalex.org/W856873086","https://openalex.org/W1563535962","https://openalex.org/W7213568834"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,103],"preponderance-of-the-evidence":[1],"standard":[2,94],"usually":[3],"is":[4,19,58,95,150],"understood":[5],"to":[6,42,120,131],"mean":[7],"that":[8,13,16,34,53,79,124,167,176],"the":[9,14,17,51,54,71,88,92,118,126,140,144,155,165,173],"plaintiff":[10],"must":[11],"show":[12],"probability":[15,52,145,174],"defendant":[18,45,55,128,149],"in":[20,35,56,59,80,163],"fact":[21,60],"liable":[22,137],"exceeds":[23],"1/2.":[24,153],"Several":[25],"commentators":[26],"and":[27,66],"at":[28],"least":[29],"one":[30,85,112],"court":[31],"have":[32,116,132],"suggested":[33],"some":[36],"situations":[37],"it":[38,98,158],"may":[39],"be":[40,136],"preferable":[41],"make":[43],"each":[44,169],"pay":[46],"plaintiff's":[47],"damages":[48,171],"discounted":[49],"by":[50,172],"question":[57],"liable.":[61],"This":[62],"article":[63,104],"analyzes":[64],"these":[65],"other":[67],"decision":[68,75],"rules":[69],"from":[70],"standpoint":[72],"of":[73,91,113,175],"statistical":[74],"theory.":[76],"It":[77,122],"argues":[78,123],"most":[81,129],"cases":[82,107,162],"involving":[83,108],"only":[84,111],"potential":[86],"defendant,":[87],"conventional":[89],"interpretation":[90],"preponderance":[93],"appropriate,":[96],"but":[97],"notes":[99],"an":[100],"important":[101],"exception.":[102],"also":[105],"considers":[106],"many":[109],"defendants,":[110],"whom":[114],"could":[115],"caused":[117],"injury":[119],"plaintiff.":[121],"ordinarily":[125],"single":[127],"likely":[130],"been":[133],"responsible":[134],"should":[135,179],"for":[138],"all":[139],"damages,":[141],"even":[142],"when":[143],"associated":[146],"with":[147],"this":[148],"less":[151],"than":[152],"At":[154],"same":[156],"time,":[157],"identifies":[159],"certain":[160],"multiple-defendant":[161],"which":[164],"rule":[166],"weights":[168],"defendant's":[170,177],"liability":[178],"apply.":[180]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":35},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":8},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":2}],"updated_date":"2026-10-16T09:59:22.235173","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}