{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2057376089","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","title":"The National Labs: Science in an American System, 1947\u20131974","display_name":"The National Labs: Science in an American System, 1947\u20131974","publication_year":2004,"publication_date":"2004-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2057376089","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","mag":"2057376089"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1063/1.1650071","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S180907581","display_name":"Physics Today","issn_l":"0031-9228","issn":["0031-9228","1945-0699"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320061","host_organization_name":"AIP Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320061","https://openalex.org/P4310320257"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["AIP Publishing","American Institute of Physics"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Physics Today","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"book-review","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5025943838","display_name":"Lillian Hartmann Hoddeson","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6000-4861","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6000-4861"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I157725225","display_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","ror":"https://ror.org/047426m28","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Lillian Hoddeson","raw_affiliation_strings":["University of Illinois , Urbana-Champaign, US"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"University of Illinois , Urbana-Champaign, US","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5025943838"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I157725225"],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":null,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":33,"citation_normalized_percentile":null,"cited_by_percentile_year":null,"biblio":{"volume":"57","issue":"1","first_page":"52","last_page":"53"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12445","display_name":"Twentieth Century Scientific Developments","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12445","display_name":"Twentieth Century Scientific Developments","score":0.9980000257492065,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13641","display_name":"Historical Studies and Socio-cultural Analysis","score":0.0010999999940395355,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T14185","display_name":"Research, Science, and Academia","score":0.000699999975040555,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1405","display_name":"Management of Technology and Innovation"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/14","display_name":"Business, Management and Accounting"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/national-laboratories","display_name":"national laboratories","score":0.8610000014305115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/atomic-energy-commission","display_name":"Atomic Energy Commission","score":0.9169999957084656},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/manhattan-project","display_name":"Manhattan Project","score":0.8069999814033508},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cold-war-science-policy","display_name":"Cold War science policy","score":0.8209999799728394},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/laboratory-organization","display_name":"laboratory organization","score":0.5450000166893005},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/laboratory-directors","display_name":"laboratory directors","score":0.45500001311302185},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scientific-manpower","display_name":"scientific manpower","score":0.3479999899864197},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/scientific-nationalism","display_name":"scientific nationalism","score":0.38100001215934753},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/border-disputes","display_name":"border disputes","score":0.5740000009536743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/biomedicine","display_name":"biomedicine","score":0.6460000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/solid-state-physics","display_name":"solid state physics","score":0.8690000176429749},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/history-of-science-in-the-united-states","display_name":"history of American science","score":0.5690000057220459}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2991948145","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16801175","display_name":"National laboratory","level":2,"score":0.5641958117485046},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C161191863","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q199655","display_name":"Library science","level":1,"score":0.4398972690105438},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C61696701","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q770766","display_name":"Engineering physics","level":1,"score":0.4376167058944702},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.38069263100624084},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C127413603","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11023","display_name":"Engineering","level":0,"score":0.2436732053756714},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C41008148","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q21198","display_name":"Computer science","level":0,"score":0.1684284508228302}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1063/1.1650071","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1650071","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S180907581","display_name":"Physics Today","issn_l":"0031-9228","issn":["0031-9228","1945-0699"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","jufo-1","norway-1","poland-100","russia-white-list-1"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320061","host_organization_name":"AIP Publishing","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320061","https://openalex.org/P4310320257"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["AIP Publishing","American Institute of Physics"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Physics Today","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"grobid_xml":false,"pdf":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":0,"referenced_works":[],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2126786800","https://openalex.org/W1982896310","https://openalex.org/W2142781003","https://openalex.org/W2896778605","https://openalex.org/W2763039755","https://openalex.org/W191831269","https://openalex.org/W2384520516","https://openalex.org/W71938772","https://openalex.org/W4206826149","https://openalex.org/W3120104067"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"*":[0,2,7,12,15,21,24,27,32,34,37,41,43,48,53,58,67,69,72,79,83,86,92,94,99,102,108,116,119,122,130,133,139,145,152,159,161,163],"Introduction":[1],"Why":[3],"Study":[4],"the":[5,10,46],"Labs?":[6,11],"What":[8],"Were":[9],"The":[13,17,49,54,60,117,120,123,131,134],"Approach":[14],"I.":[16],"Framework":[18,118],"*1.":[19],"Origins":[20],"Manhattan":[22],"Project":[23],"Postwar":[25,28],"Plans":[26],"Realities":[29],"*2.":[30],"Individuality":[31],"Contractors":[33],"Laboratory":[35,148,155],"Organization":[36,44],"Manpower":[38],"*3.":[39],"Interdependence":[40],"Security":[42],"of":[45,51],"AEC":[47],"Path":[50],"Proposals":[52],"Lab":[55],"Directors'":[56],"Club":[57],"II.":[59],"Environment":[61,121],"*4.":[62],"Cold":[63],"War":[64],"Winter,":[65],"1947--1954":[66,101],"Drivers":[68],"Big":[70],"Equipment":[71],"Small":[73],"Science":[74],"*5.":[75],"False":[76],"Spring,":[77],"1954--1962":[78,107],"Nationalism":[80],"and":[81,104,111,128,142],"Internationalism":[82],"Boundary":[84],"Disputes":[85],"III.":[87],"Consequences":[88],"*6.":[89],"Adaptive":[90],"Strategies":[91],"Specialization":[93],"Diversification":[95],"*7.":[96],"Exemplary":[97],"Additions":[98],"Biomedicine,":[100],"Solid-State":[103],"Materials":[105],"Science,":[106],"IV.":[109],"Epilogue":[110],"Conclusion":[112],"*8.":[113],"Epilogue,":[114],"1962--1974":[115],"Response":[124],"*9.":[125],"Conclusion:":[126],"Strategy":[127],"Structure":[129],"Actors":[132],"System:":[135],"A":[136],"New":[137],"Species":[138],"National":[140,143],"Labs":[141],"Goals":[144],"Appendix":[146,153],"1.":[147],"Operating":[149,156],"Budgets,":[150,157],"1948--1966":[151],"2.":[154],"1973":[158],"Abbreviations":[160],"Notes":[162],"Index":[164]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":3}],"updated_date":"2026-10-28T10:33:24.094632","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
