{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2050171370","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","title":"The Species Problem: A Philosophical Analysis","display_name":"The Species Problem: A Philosophical Analysis","publication_year":2011,"publication_date":"2011-12-22","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2050171370","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","mag":"2050171370"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1093/sysbio/syr112","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S65478581","display_name":"Systematic Biology","issn_l":"1063-5157","issn":["1063-5157","1076-836X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-a","jufo-3","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Systematic Biology","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011513930","display_name":"John Wilkins","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7596-2966","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7596-2966"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I129604602","display_name":"The University of Sydney","ror":"https://ror.org/0384j8v12","country_code":"AU","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I129604602"]}],"countries":["AU"],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"John S. Wilkins","raw_affiliation_strings":["School of Philosophical and Historical Inquiry, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"School of Philosophical and Historical Inquiry, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I129604602"]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":1,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5011513930"],"corresponding_institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I129604602"],"apc_list":{"value":2166,"currency":"USD","value_usd":2166},"apc_paid":null,"fwci":2.0383,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":36,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.90703423,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"61","issue":"2","first_page":"362","last_page":"363"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10778","display_name":"Philosophy and History of Science","score":0.9970999956130981,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10778","display_name":"Philosophy and History of Science","score":0.9970999956130981,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12182","display_name":"Evolution and Science Education","score":0.00139999995008111,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T13558","display_name":"Philosophy, Science, and History","score":0.00019999999494757503,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/1207","display_name":"History and Philosophy of Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/12","display_name":"Arts and Humanities"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/species-concept","display_name":"species concept","score":0.8799999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/essentialism","display_name":"essentialism","score":0.7710000276565552},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/natural-kinds","display_name":"natural kinds","score":0.7450000047683716},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/richard-richards","display_name":"Richard Richards","score":0.6039999723434448},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/darwinian-evolution","display_name":"Darwinian evolution","score":0.5680000185966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/population-thinking","display_name":"population thinking","score":0.734000027179718},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/systematics","display_name":"systematics","score":0.6299999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/ernst-mayr","display_name":"Ernst Mayr","score":0.6650000214576721},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/history-of-biology","display_name":"history of biology","score":0.45399999618530273},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/philosophy-of-biology","display_name":"philosophy of biology","score":0.6240000128746033},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/necessary-and-sufficient-conditions","display_name":"necessary and sufficient conditions","score":0.5609999895095825},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/taxonomy","display_name":"taxonomy","score":0.3959999978542328},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/phylogenetic-species","display_name":"phylogenetic species","score":0.6290000081062317},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/monophyly","display_name":"monophyly","score":0.5709999799728394}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C86803240","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q420","display_name":"Biology","level":0,"score":0.7675702571868896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C78458016","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q840400","display_name":"Evolutionary biology","level":1,"score":0.41390925645828247},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C111472728","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9471","display_name":"Epistemology","level":1,"score":0.3777863383293152},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138885662","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5891","display_name":"Philosophy","level":0,"score":0.08489260077476501}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1093/sysbio/syr112","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr112","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S65478581","display_name":"Systematic Biology","issn_l":"1063-5157","issn":["1063-5157","1076-836X"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","dongbi-a","jufo-3","ki-jl-1","medline","norway-2","poland-200","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310311648","host_organization_name":"Oxford University Press","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310311648","https://openalex.org/P4310311647"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Oxford University Press","University of Oxford"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Systematic Biology","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":14,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W203590772","https://openalex.org/W617673500","https://openalex.org/W1531102552","https://openalex.org/W1551421493","https://openalex.org/W1968034448","https://openalex.org/W2049725965","https://openalex.org/W2051080577","https://openalex.org/W2070927406","https://openalex.org/W2094409931","https://openalex.org/W2313567833","https://openalex.org/W3123780293","https://openalex.org/W4249503964","https://openalex.org/W6608127090","https://openalex.org/W6619252809"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W7015122734","https://openalex.org/W2253143413","https://openalex.org/W2172239182","https://openalex.org/W2026576709","https://openalex.org/W1551421493","https://openalex.org/W2801661907","https://openalex.org/W7033010191","https://openalex.org/W7149022807","https://openalex.org/W2915757775","https://openalex.org/W201160842"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"Over":[0],"the":[1,6,18,25,53,83,100,123,176,219,223,231,236,241,246,256,272,281,295,299,303,319,341,344,353,361,364,370,401,420,423,427,495,508,516,537,545,578,584,589,604,609,640,652,669,725,754,763,774,784,806,835,849,852,855,860,865,877,881,897,931,957,1010,1015,1102,1106,1165,1168,1174,1189,1197,1212,1216],"past":[2],"50":[3,169],"years,":[4],"since":[5],"sesquicentenary":[7],"of":[8,20,82,128,131,163,189,230,249,289,321,405,422,435,472,488,497,542,547,559,577,612,636,645,656,668,686,708,714,717,728,750,820,838,862,867,873,899,917,930,961,1029,1075,1101,1132,1188],"Charles":[9],"Darwin's":[10],"birth,":[11],"there":[12,179,555,703],"has":[13,23,71,75,564],"been":[14,72,76,565],"a":[15,77,111,116,157,160,181,378,397,469,486,498,557,568,678,690,705,747,788,800,927,985,989,994,1022,1024,1069,1092,1113,1156,1185],"story":[16,305,372,404],"about":[17,309,478,494,859,889,905,1005],"concept":[19,672],"species":[21,84,112,190,290,715,758,845,986,1023,1025,1048,1076],"that":[22,178,186,380,436,474,554,572,595,614,626,675,753,772,797,890,922,933,1058,1180,1195,1211],"become":[24],"received":[26],"view":[27,473,1193],"among":[28,42,125],"biologists":[29,251,335,982],"and":[30,40,133,142,149,165,184,198,266,285,323,356,363,376,414,451,481,523,531,544,603,648,697,700,721,724,737,778,842,864,935,981,1077,1117,1150,1158,1194],"philosophers":[31,171,476,980],"alike.":[32],"Historians":[33],"Polly":[34],"Winsor,":[35],"Gordon":[36],"McOuat,":[37],"Ron":[38],"Amundson,":[39],"myself,":[41],"others,":[43,212],"have":[44,172,211,253,885,937,944,1061],"attempted":[45],"to":[46,96,99,318,400,507,535,552,598,617,660,662,734,759,813,876,880,951,974,1009,1063,1073,1082,1129,1155],"deflate":[47],"this":[48,89,187,207,348,664,923,952,975,1141],"story,":[49,102,209],"which":[50,86,119,244,454,563,587,607,823,911],"we":[51,615,627,792,811,1059],"call":[52],"\u201cessentialism":[54],"story\u201d":[55],"(McOuat":[56],"2001,":[57],"Winsor":[58,60,62],"2003,":[59],"2006a,":[61],"2006b,":[63],"Amundson":[64],"2005,":[65],"Wilkins":[66,68],"2009a,":[67],"2009b).":[69],"What":[70],"lacking,":[73],"however,":[74],"post-essentia":[78],"list":[79],"philosophical":[80,238,247,279,296,311,365,470,560],"interpretation":[81],"concept,":[85],"is":[87,120,156,180,191,306,429,483,526,556,588,608,621,674,677,704,745,780,786,799,893,912,924,963,987,1026,1200,1218],"what":[88,308,444,475,600,913,1020],"recent":[90,634],"book":[91,368,428,1142,1217],"by":[92,122,385,683,694,767,979],"Richard":[93,646],"Richards":[94,205,233,350,512,1095],"undertakes":[95],"provide.":[97],"According":[98,973],"essentialism":[101,304,1119],"before":[103,412],"Darwin":[104,413,416],"worked":[105],"his":[106,1111],"magic":[107],"upon":[108,515,1091],"our":[109,711,816],"thinking":[110,200],"was":[113,334,408],"treated":[114],"as":[115,210,259,269,271,389,391,433,439,639,689,803,918,1042,1151,1206],"natural":[117],"kind,":[118],"defined":[121],"possession":[124],"its":[126,136],"members":[127],"some":[129,449,576,684,1027],"set":[130,685,1028],"necessary":[132],"sufficient":[134],"properties:":[135],"essence":[137,802,839],"(Hull":[138],"1965,":[139],"Kitts":[140,143],"D.B.":[141],"D.J.":[144],"1979,":[145],"Okasha":[146],"2002,":[147],"Levit":[148],"Meister":[150],"2006,":[151],"Bird":[152],"2009).":[153],"Now,":[154],"\u201cessence\u201d":[155,496,934],"term":[158],"with":[159,175,195,503,822,1071,1080],"wide":[161],"array":[162],"meanings":[164],"histories,":[166],"but":[167,213,330,426,518,993,1109],"for":[168,302,567,623,851,959,1147,1167],"years":[170],"equated":[173],"it":[174,333,440,550,676,798,942,1043,1054,1133,1135,1162,1181,1199],"claim":[177],"\u201cspecies":[182,969],"nature\u201d":[183],"argued":[185],"conception":[188,749],"fundamentally":[192],"in":[193,222,240,324,343,373,519,540,651,848,925,939,947,955,1039,1099,1139,1172,1196,1215],"conflict":[194],"Darwinian":[196],"evolution":[197],"population":[199],"(Sober":[201],"1980,":[202],"O'Hara":[203],"1997).":[204],"attacks":[206],"historical":[208,220,300,995],"he":[214,522,525,833,1125],"goes":[215],"further.":[216],"After":[217],"presenting":[218],"considerations":[221],"first":[224,345],"four":[225],"chapters,":[226],"comprising":[227],"112":[228],"pages":[229],"book,":[232,349,658],"then":[234,791,1053],"overviews":[235],"current":[237],"views":[239,248],"fifth":[242],"chapter,":[243],"considers":[245],"those":[250,729],"who":[252,339],"written":[254],"on":[255],"topic,":[257],"such":[258,638,768,830],"Rick":[260],"Mayden,":[261],"Ed":[262],"Wiley,":[263],"Brent":[264],"Mishler,":[265],"Michael":[267,964],"Donoghue,":[268],"well":[270,355,390],"philosopher":[273,491],"commentators.":[274],"The":[275,367,666,1084],"subsequent":[276],"chapters":[277],"cover":[278],"topics:":[280],"metaphysics":[282],"(Chapter":[283,287],"6)":[284],"semantics":[286],"7)":[288],"concepts.":[291],"Chapter":[292,654],"8":[293],"summarizes":[294],"conclusions.":[297],"If":[298,783,1019],"basis":[301],"wrong,":[307],"these":[310,618],"issues?":[312],"Biologists":[313],"might":[314,441,573,871],"think":[315,477,909,916,1179,1210],"them":[316,358],"irrelevant":[317],"practice":[320],"systematics,":[322],"everyday":[325],"terms":[326,613,869,902],"they":[327,601],"probably":[328,1219],"are,":[329,602],"after":[331],"all":[332],"like":[336,528],"Ernst":[337],"Mayr":[338],"raised":[340],"matter":[342,487],"place.":[346],"In":[347,443],"sets":[351,1163],"up":[352,575,1097,1164],"problems":[354],"motivates":[357],"from":[359,419,468,896],"both":[360],"biological":[362],"standpoints.":[366],"gives":[369],"usual":[371],"good":[374],"detail":[375],"at":[377],"level":[379,387],"could":[381],"be":[382,599,760,872,1003,1046,1067,1144],"profitably":[383],"read":[384],"upper":[386],"undergraduates":[388],"philosophically":[392],"inclined":[393],"systematists.":[394],"It":[395,465],"offers":[396],"useful":[398,1146],"corrective":[399],"standard":[402,953,1011],"textbook":[403],"how":[406,415],"everything":[407],"Aristotelian":[409],"or":[410,500,671,688,991,999],"Platonist":[411],"freed":[417],"us":[418],"strictures":[421],"Greek":[424],"eidos,":[425],"not,":[430],"I":[431,446,455,824,883,920,1088,1178,1207],"think,":[432],"free":[434],"approach":[437],"itself":[438],"be.":[442],"follows,":[445],"shall":[447],"make":[448,1130],"slight":[450],"amicable":[452],"criticisms,":[453],"hope":[456],"will":[457,492,1060,1143],"not":[458,795,828,879,988,1056,1127,1183,1201],"put":[459],"anyone":[460],"off":[461],"reading":[462],"Richards'":[463,657,818],"book.":[464],"often":[466],"appears":[467],"point":[471],"kinds,":[479],"species,":[480,637],"forms":[482],"very":[484,569],"largely":[485],"language.":[489],"A":[490],"talk":[493],"\u201ctiger\u201d":[499],"an":[501,1006,1078,1152],"\u201celm,\u201d":[502],"no":[504],"consideration":[505],"given":[506],"actual":[509],"biology":[510],"involved.":[511],"carefully":[513],"focuses":[514],"biology,":[517,940],"so":[520],"doing":[521],"others":[524,649],"reporting,":[527],"Saul":[529],"Kripke":[530],"Hilary":[532],"Putnam,":[533],"tend":[534],"equate":[536],"claims":[538],"made":[539,1004],"philosophy":[541,861],"language":[543,863],"subject":[546],"biology.":[548],"However,":[549,762,1177],"seems":[551],"me":[553],"bit":[558],"kit":[561],"available,":[562],"available":[566],"long":[570],"time,":[571],"clear":[574],"confusion:":[579],"John":[580],"Locke's":[581,735,1040],"distinction":[582,1017,1114],"between":[583,710,776,1115],"\u201creal":[585,1037],"essence,\u201d":[586,606],"(to":[590],"Locke":[591,620],"unknowable)":[592],"causal":[593,726,1034],"powers":[594],"cause":[596,779],"things":[597,1051],"\u201cnominal":[605],"definitional":[610,906],"properties":[611,699,1035],"apply":[616],"things.":[619],"famous":[622],"having":[624],"said":[625],"can":[628,1002,1066],"know":[629],"only":[630,875],"nominal":[631],"essences.":[632],"Some":[633],"accounts":[635],"\u201chomeostatic":[641],"property":[642,1191],"cluster\u201d":[643],"account":[644],"Boyd":[647],"discussed":[650],"meaty":[653],"6":[655],"seem":[659,1128],"attempt":[661],"straddle":[663],"distinction.":[665],"meaning":[667,866],"word":[670],"\u201cspecies\u201d":[673],"kind":[679,868,901,992],"causally":[680],"held":[681],"together":[682],"powers,":[687],"biologist":[691],"would":[692,884,1136],"say,":[693],"developmental,":[695],"ecological,":[696],"phylogenetic":[698],"processes.":[701],"But":[702],"considerable":[706],"amount":[707],"vacillation":[709],"diagnostic":[712,748,789],"definitions":[713],"(observations":[716],"morphology,":[718],"molecular":[719],"sequences,":[720],"ecological":[722],"behaviors)":[723],"explanations":[727],"observations.":[730],"This":[731,892],"broadly":[732],"equates":[733],"\u201cnominal\u201d":[736],"\u201creal\u201d":[738],"essentialism.":[739,919],"For":[740],"example,":[741],"DNA":[742],"bar":[743],"coding":[744],"clearly":[746],"\u201cspecies\u201d\u2014nobody":[751],"thinks":[752],"cox1":[755],"gene":[756,785],"causes":[757],"distinct.":[761],"taxonomic":[764,1118],"inflation":[765],"caused":[766],"single-gene":[769],"diagnoses":[770],"suggests":[771],"sometimes":[773],"difference":[775],"diagnosis":[777,807],"being":[781],"overlooked.":[782],"merely":[787],"essence,":[790],"had":[793],"better":[794],"presume":[796],"real":[801,1050],"well.":[804],"When":[805],"oversplits":[808],"taxa,":[809],"perhaps":[810],"need":[812],"reality":[814],"check":[815],"diagnoses.":[817],"discussion":[819,888],"essentialism,":[821],"mostly":[825,1032],"concur,":[826],"does":[827,1055,1126,1182],"consider":[829],"matters.":[831],"Instead,":[832],"adopts":[834],"previous":[836],"distinctions":[837],"=":[840,844],"class":[841,990],"nominalism":[843],"individualism,":[846],"settling":[847],"end":[850,1198],"latter.":[853],"Given":[854],"final":[856],"(seventh)":[857],"chapter":[858],"(which":[870],"interest":[874],"philosophers,":[878],"systematists),":[882],"expected":[886],"more":[887],"issue.":[891],"quite":[894],"apart":[895],"question":[898],"whether":[900],"are":[903,1049],"necessarily":[904],"classes":[907],"(I":[908],"not),":[910],"most":[914],"people":[915],"believe":[921],"fact":[926,956],"wrong":[928],"characterization":[929],"role":[932],"cognates":[936],"played":[938,945],"although":[941],"may":[943],"out":[946],"philosophy.":[948],"One":[949,1065],"response":[950],"view,":[954,976],"source":[958],"much":[960,1131],"it,":[962],"Ghiselin's":[965],"well-known":[966],"thesis":[967,1086,1104],"called":[968],"individualism\u201d":[970],"(Ghiselin":[971],"1974).":[972],"widely":[977],"adopted":[978],"until":[983],"recently,":[984],"individual.":[996],"No":[997],"laws":[998],"universal":[1000],"generalizations":[1001],"individual,":[1007],"according":[1008],"story.":[1012],"Here,":[1013],"again,":[1014],"Lockean":[1016],"helps.":[1018],"makes":[1021],"shared":[1030],"(or":[1031],"shared)":[1033],"(the":[1036],"essence\u201d":[1038],"terms),":[1041],"surely":[1044],"must":[1045],"if":[1047],"individually,":[1052],"follow":[1057],"access":[1062],"them.":[1064],"simultaneously":[1068],"nominalist":[1070],"respect":[1072,1081],"descriptions":[1074],"essentialist":[1079],"causes.":[1083],"individualist":[1085,1103,1175],"is,":[1087],"believe,":[1089],"based":[1090],"false":[1093],"dichotomy.":[1094],"ends":[1096],"concluding":[1098],"favor":[1100],"(under":[1105],"rubric":[1107],"\u201cspecies-as-individuals\u201d),":[1108],"despite":[1110],"proposing":[1112],"functional":[1116],"(with":[1120],"Renaissance":[1121],"naturalists,":[1122],"p.":[1123],"54),":[1124],"where":[1134],"help.":[1137],"All":[1138],"all,":[1140],"extremely":[1145],"teaching":[1148],"purposes":[1149],"excellent":[1153],"introduction":[1154],"complex":[1157],"difficult":[1159],"subject.":[1160],"Moreover,":[1161],"issues":[1166],"various":[1169],"alternative":[1170],"views,":[1171],"particular":[1173],"view.":[1176],"offer":[1184],"proper":[1186],"treatment":[1187],"homeostatic":[1190],"cluster":[1192],"entirely":[1202],"convincing,":[1203],"even":[1204],"when,":[1205],"do,":[1208],"you":[1209],"solution":[1213],"presented":[1214],"right.":[1220]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":15},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":16},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":1}],"updated_date":"2026-08-21T09:56:20.448147","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}