{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2022987442","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","title":"Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence.","display_name":"Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence.","publication_year":1976,"publication_date":"1976-01-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2022987442","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","mag":"2022987442"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62013203","display_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology General","issn_l":"0096-3445","issn":["0096-3445","1939-2222"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","medline","norway-2","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320262","host_organization_name":"American Psychological Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320262"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Psychological Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","is_traditional":true,"indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5011957342","display_name":"Steven F. Maier","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3370-6160","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3370-6160"]},"institutions":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/I188538660","display_name":"University of Colorado Boulder","ror":"https://ror.org/02ttsq026","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I188538660"]},{"id":"https://openalex.org/I2802236040","display_name":"University of Colorado System","ror":"https://ror.org/00jc20583","country_code":"US","type":"education","lineage":["https://openalex.org/I2802236040"]}],"countries":["US"],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Steven F. Maier","raw_affiliation_strings":["U Colorado, Boulder"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"U Colorado, Boulder","institution_ids":["https://openalex.org/I188538660","https://openalex.org/I2802236040"]}]},{"author_position":"last","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5064981523","display_name":"Martin E. P. Seligman","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2028-0009","observed_orcids":["https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2028-0009"]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":false,"raw_author_name":"Martin E. Seligman","raw_affiliation_strings":[],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":1,"institutions_distinct_count":2,"corresponding_author_ids":[],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":32.7231,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":2509,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.99912618,"is_in_top_1_percent":true,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":99,"max":100},"biblio":{"volume":"105","issue":"1","first_page":"3","last_page":"46"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10448","display_name":"Memory and Neural Mechanisms","score":0.3109999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10448","display_name":"Memory and Neural Mechanisms","score":0.3109999895095825,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2805","display_name":"Cognitive Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10853","display_name":"Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes","score":0.25760000944137573,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3205","display_name":"Experimental and Cognitive Psychology"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/32","display_name":"Psychology"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10529","display_name":"Stress Responses and Cortisol","score":0.07240000367164612,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/2802","display_name":"Behavioral Neuroscience"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/28","display_name":"Neuroscience"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/1","display_name":"Life Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/learned-helplessness","display_name":"learned helplessness","score":1.0},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/uncontrollability","display_name":"uncontrollability","score":0.9269999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/inescapable-shock","display_name":"inescapable shock","score":0.8989999890327454},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/escape-learning","display_name":"escape learning","score":0.8270000219345093},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/motivation","display_name":"motivation","score":0.45899999141693115},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/cognitive-set","display_name":"cognitive set","score":0.6539999842643738},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/stress","display_name":"stress","score":0.42500001192092896},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/rats","display_name":"rats","score":0.47699999809265137},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/human","display_name":"human","score":0.5879999995231628},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/undecidable-problems","display_name":"unsolvable problems","score":0.7039999961853027},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/noise-aversion","display_name":"noise aversion","score":0.5429999828338623}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C167305396","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q618018","display_name":"Learned helplessness","level":2,"score":0.933265745639801},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.574024498462677},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C11171543","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41630","display_name":"Psychoanalysis","level":1,"score":0.44832342863082886},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C180747234","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23373","display_name":"Cognitive psychology","level":1,"score":0.3749033212661743},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C138496976","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175002","display_name":"Developmental psychology","level":1,"score":0.34142228960990906}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":2,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-3445.105.1.3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62013203","display_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology General","issn_l":"0096-3445","issn":["0096-3445","1939-2222"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","medline","norway-2","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320262","host_organization_name":"American Psychological Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320262"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Psychological Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General","raw_type":"journal-article"},{"id":"doi:10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.105.1.3","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S62013203","display_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology General","issn_l":"0096-3445","issn":["0096-3445","1939-2222"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["abdc-a-star","anvur-class-a","anvur-scientific","cwts-core","dongbi-b","erih-plus","jufo-3","ki-jl-2","medline","norway-2","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320262","host_organization_name":"American Psychological Association","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320262"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["American Psychological Association"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":131,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W98496225","https://openalex.org/W584287212","https://openalex.org/W645698489","https://openalex.org/W983616655","https://openalex.org/W1561644443","https://openalex.org/W1582263851","https://openalex.org/W1600721552","https://openalex.org/W1719717336","https://openalex.org/W1736411290","https://openalex.org/W1894358115","https://openalex.org/W1964293645","https://openalex.org/W1966229868","https://openalex.org/W1967158064","https://openalex.org/W1969039856","https://openalex.org/W1969193295","https://openalex.org/W1970175895","https://openalex.org/W1972933425","https://openalex.org/W1973071415","https://openalex.org/W1976255402","https://openalex.org/W1976910423","https://openalex.org/W1982150484","https://openalex.org/W1984155520","https://openalex.org/W1984605104","https://openalex.org/W1984832810","https://openalex.org/W1986427793","https://openalex.org/W1986524195","https://openalex.org/W1989897254","https://openalex.org/W1991464227","https://openalex.org/W1991848401","https://openalex.org/W1992817534","https://openalex.org/W1993366964","https://openalex.org/W1993966049","https://openalex.org/W1994551428","https://openalex.org/W1997587893","https://openalex.org/W1998176909","https://openalex.org/W2000855793","https://openalex.org/W2004415576","https://openalex.org/W2004454556","https://openalex.org/W2004694588","https://openalex.org/W2005727881","https://openalex.org/W2009614312","https://openalex.org/W2012152595","https://openalex.org/W2013993670","https://openalex.org/W2014921671","https://openalex.org/W2016377072","https://openalex.org/W2016455213","https://openalex.org/W2017731063","https://openalex.org/W2017982428","https://openalex.org/W2018937716","https://openalex.org/W2019437877","https://openalex.org/W2019568341","https://openalex.org/W2020256668","https://openalex.org/W2021134386","https://openalex.org/W2025623606","https://openalex.org/W2028597086","https://openalex.org/W2029881113","https://openalex.org/W2030294356","https://openalex.org/W2030815760","https://openalex.org/W2031206332","https://openalex.org/W2032279986","https://openalex.org/W2036976383","https://openalex.org/W2037976149","https://openalex.org/W2040041665","https://openalex.org/W2043124403","https://openalex.org/W2044091827","https://openalex.org/W2046340060","https://openalex.org/W2047953119","https://openalex.org/W2050160360","https://openalex.org/W2050611097","https://openalex.org/W2051283224","https://openalex.org/W2051877314","https://openalex.org/W2054774062","https://openalex.org/W2056031394","https://openalex.org/W2057988642","https://openalex.org/W2058672931","https://openalex.org/W2061529674","https://openalex.org/W2061929866","https://openalex.org/W2062294820","https://openalex.org/W2062438284","https://openalex.org/W2063981201","https://openalex.org/W2065603175","https://openalex.org/W2065670327","https://openalex.org/W2067238826","https://openalex.org/W2071936644","https://openalex.org/W2072333170","https://openalex.org/W2073190037","https://openalex.org/W2073745219","https://openalex.org/W2073774509","https://openalex.org/W2075077336","https://openalex.org/W2076319887","https://openalex.org/W2080838289","https://openalex.org/W2081059623","https://openalex.org/W2083040408","https://openalex.org/W2086140780","https://openalex.org/W2088745728","https://openalex.org/W2089127313","https://openalex.org/W2089424919","https://openalex.org/W2090242265","https://openalex.org/W2091144676","https://openalex.org/W2093069412","https://openalex.org/W2100826189","https://openalex.org/W2107819622","https://openalex.org/W2107859456","https://openalex.org/W2117124138","https://openalex.org/W2119531941","https://openalex.org/W2119743323","https://openalex.org/W2120722526","https://openalex.org/W2126008037","https://openalex.org/W2127255373","https://openalex.org/W2127959107","https://openalex.org/W2135764559","https://openalex.org/W2139986071","https://openalex.org/W2140158566","https://openalex.org/W2142022388","https://openalex.org/W2144323120","https://openalex.org/W2153976304","https://openalex.org/W2166076151","https://openalex.org/W2209080561","https://openalex.org/W2314192327","https://openalex.org/W2318279030","https://openalex.org/W2320493541","https://openalex.org/W2334075734","https://openalex.org/W2346711610","https://openalex.org/W2413342748","https://openalex.org/W2503347033","https://openalex.org/W2581969695","https://openalex.org/W2971112295","https://openalex.org/W3024450942","https://openalex.org/W3188543527","https://openalex.org/W4293859042","https://openalex.org/W4407046904"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W4244168399","https://openalex.org/W54355814","https://openalex.org/W2018937716","https://openalex.org/W1517238499","https://openalex.org/W2013993670","https://openalex.org/W7019746614","https://openalex.org/W1112723694","https://openalex.org/W2061929866","https://openalex.org/W75817814","https://openalex.org/W2689930322"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"\\,":[0],"SUMMARY":[1],"In":[2,54],"1967,":[3],"Overmier":[4],"and":[5,13,38,71,86,120,133,182,195,220,285,289,297,309,317,370,388],"Seligman":[6,37],"found":[7],"that":[8,42,94,152,202,244,274,282,290,339,350,363],"dogs":[9],"exposed":[10,97],"to":[11,22,24,64,82,98,145,158,160,171,204,213,346],"inescapable":[12,99,180],"unavoidable":[14],"electric":[15],"shocks":[16,100],"in":[17,27,107,116,131,147,319,356],"one":[18],"situation":[19,30],"later":[20],"failed":[21],"learn":[23,159,341],"escape":[25,32,105,161,164],"shock":[26,349,365],"a":[28,175,225,231,238,367,372,390],"different":[29],"where":[31],"was":[33,45],"possible.":[34],"Shortly":[35],"thereafter":[36],"Maier":[39],"(1967)":[40],"demonstrated":[41],"this":[43,55,291],"effect":[44],"caused":[46],"by":[47],"the":[48,51,59,74,108,126,163,210,268,279,294,305,330,353,357,376,382],"uncontrollability":[49],"of":[50,61,89,110,128,137,177,227,240,300,329,336,378,385,392],"original":[52],"shocks.":[53],"article":[56],"we":[57,72,150,173,223,266,315],"review":[58,73,113,174,224,237],"effects":[60,88,191,299],"exposing":[62],"organisms":[63,340],"aversive":[65,246,255],"events":[66,207,247,276],"which":[67,76,187,242,265,311,323,394],"they":[68],"cannot":[69],"control,":[70],"explanations":[75,387],"have":[77,95,258,324],"been":[78,96,143,325],"offered.":[79],"There":[80],"seem":[81],"be":[83],"motivational,":[84,295],"cognitive,":[85,296],"emotional":[87,250,298],"uncontrollability.":[90],"(a)":[91],"Motivation.":[92],"Dogs":[93],"do":[101,156,253],"not":[102],"subsequently":[103],"initiate":[104],"response":[106,354],"presence":[109],"shock.":[111],"We":[112,200,236,257,303,380],"parallel":[114],"phenomena":[115],"cats,":[117],"fish,":[118],"rats,":[119],"man.":[121,134],"Of":[122],"particular":[123],"interest":[124,138],"is":[125,166,366],"discussion":[127],"learned":[129,140,189,269,306,331],"helplessness":[130,141,190,270,307,332],"rats":[132,155],"Rats":[135],"are":[136,277,287],"because":[139],"has":[142],"difficult":[144],"demonstrate":[146],"rats.":[148],"However,":[149],"show":[151,243],"inescapably":[153],"shocked":[154],"fail":[157],"if":[162],"task":[165],"reasonably":[167],"difficult.":[168],"With":[169],"regard":[170],"man,":[172],"variety":[176,226,239,391],"studies":[178,228],"using":[179],"noise":[181],"unsolvable":[183],"problems":[184],"as":[185,327],"agents":[186],"produce":[188,248],"on":[192,396],"both":[193],"instrumental":[194],"cognitive":[196,232],"tasks,":[197],"(b)":[198],"Cognition.":[199],"argue":[201],"exposure":[203,345],"uncontrollabl":[205,347],"e":[206,348],"interferes":[208],"with":[209,352],"organism's":[211],"tendency":[212],"perceive":[214],"contingent":[215],"relationships":[216],"between":[217],"its":[218,283],"behavior":[219,284],"outcomes.":[221],"Here":[222],"showing":[229],"such":[230],"set.":[233],"(c)":[234],"Emotion.":[235],"experiments":[241],"uncontrollable":[245,278,364],"greater":[249],"disruption":[251],"than":[252],"controllable":[254],"events.":[256],"proposed":[259],"an":[260],"explanation":[261,361],"for":[262,375],"these":[263,386],"effects,":[264],"call":[267],"hypothesis.":[271],"It":[272],"argues":[273,338],"when":[275],"organism":[280],"learns":[281],"outcomes":[286],"independent,":[288],"learning":[292],"produces":[293],"uncontrollabi":[301],"lity.":[302],"describe":[304,316],"hypothesis":[308],"research":[310],"supports":[312],"it.":[313],"Finally,":[314],"discuss":[318],"detail":[320],"alternative":[321],"hypotheses":[322,337],"offered":[326],"accounts":[328],"effect.":[333],"One":[334],"set":[335],"motor":[342],"responses":[343],"during":[344],"compete":[351],"required":[355],"test":[358],"task.":[359],"Another":[360],"holds":[362],"severe":[368],"stressor":[369],"depletes":[371],"neurochemical":[373],"necessary":[374],"mediation":[377],"movement.":[379],"examine":[381],"logical":[383],"structure":[384],"present":[389],"evidence":[393],"bears":[395],"them":[397],"directly.":[398]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":116},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":87},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":106},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":75},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":102},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":90},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":75},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":80},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":65},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":68},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":56},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":68},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":62},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":66},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":69}],"updated_date":"2026-11-05T12:25:35.769452","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}
