{"id":"https://openalex.org/W2016287084","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","title":"Investigating hate crimes: Case characteristics and law enforcement responses","display_name":"Investigating hate crimes: Case characteristics and law enforcement responses","publication_year":1996,"publication_date":"1996-09-01","ids":{"openalex":"https://openalex.org/W2016287084","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","mag":"2016287084"},"language":"en","primary_location":{"id":"doi:10.1080/07418829600093051","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S149422333","display_name":"Justice Quarterly","issn_l":"0741-8825","issn":["0741-8825","1745-9109"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320547","host_organization_name":"Taylor & Francis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320547","https://openalex.org/P4310320449"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Taylor & Francis","Informa"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Justice Quarterly","raw_type":"journal-article"},"volume":null,"type":"article","indexed_in":["crossref"],"open_access":{"is_oa":false,"oa_status":"closed","oa_url":null,"any_repository_has_fulltext":false},"authorships":[{"author_position":"first","author":{"id":"https://openalex.org/A5102125397","display_name":"Susan Ehrlich Martin","orcid":null,"observed_orcids":[]},"institutions":[],"countries":[],"is_corresponding":true,"raw_author_name":"Susan E. Martin","raw_affiliation_strings":["Chevy Chase, MD"],"raw_orcid":null,"affiliations":[{"raw_affiliation_string":"Chevy Chase, MD","institution_ids":[]}]}],"institutions":[],"countries_distinct_count":0,"institutions_distinct_count":0,"corresponding_author_ids":["https://openalex.org/A5102125397"],"corresponding_institution_ids":[],"apc_list":null,"apc_paid":null,"fwci":7.3446,"has_fulltext":false,"cited_by_count":102,"citation_normalized_percentile":{"value":0.96468441,"is_in_top_1_percent":false,"is_in_top_10_percent":true},"cited_by_percentile_year":{"min":89,"max":99},"biblio":{"volume":"13","issue":"3","first_page":"455","last_page":"480"},"is_retracted":false,"is_paratext":false,"is_xpac":false,"primary_topic":{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11076","display_name":"Policing Practices and Perceptions","score":0.9639000296592712,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},"topics":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/T11076","display_name":"Policing Practices and Perceptions","score":0.9639000296592712,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3320","display_name":"Political Science and International Relations"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T12736","display_name":"Criminal Justice and Penology","score":0.019600000232458115,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3308","display_name":"Law"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}},{"id":"https://openalex.org/T10574","display_name":"Crime Patterns and Interventions","score":0.009600000455975533,"subfield":{"id":"https://openalex.org/subfields/3312","display_name":"Sociology and Political Science"},"field":{"id":"https://openalex.org/fields/33","display_name":"Social Sciences"},"domain":{"id":"https://openalex.org/domains/2","display_name":"Social Sciences"}}],"keywords":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hate-crimes","display_name":"hate crimes","score":0.9620000123977661},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/police-investigation","display_name":"police investigation","score":0.7549999952316284},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/police-response","display_name":"law enforcement response","score":0.8119999766349792},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/arrest-rates","display_name":"arrest rates","score":0.8410000205039978},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/victim-support","display_name":"victim support","score":0.8019999861717224},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/community-policing","display_name":"community policing","score":0.8519999980926514},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/hate-crime-legislation","display_name":"hate crime legislation","score":0.9210000038146973},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/new-york-city","display_name":"New York City","score":0.9430000185966492},{"id":"https://openalex.org/keywords/baltimore-county","display_name":"Baltimore County","score":1.0}],"concepts":[{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2780262971","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q44554","display_name":"Law enforcement","level":2,"score":0.7005107998847961},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C73484699","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161733","display_name":"Criminology","level":1,"score":0.6789036989212036},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2777351106","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q49371","display_name":"Legislation","level":2,"score":0.5587584972381592},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C199539241","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7748","display_name":"Law","level":1,"score":0.5246736407279968},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C17744445","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q36442","display_name":"Political science","level":0,"score":0.47541719675064087},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C2779295839","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q3544090","display_name":"Punishment (psychology)","level":2,"score":0.4745289385318756},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C15744967","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9418","display_name":"Psychology","level":0,"score":0.33619827032089233},{"id":"https://openalex.org/C77805123","wikidata":"https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q161272","display_name":"Social psychology","level":1,"score":0.1217741072177887}],"mesh":[],"locations_count":1,"locations":[{"id":"doi:10.1080/07418829600093051","doi":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","is_oa":false,"landing_page_url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829600093051","pdf_url":null,"source":{"id":"https://openalex.org/S149422333","display_name":"Justice Quarterly","issn_l":"0741-8825","issn":["0741-8825","1745-9109"],"is_oa":false,"is_in_doaj":false,"is_core":true,"listed_in":["cwts-core","jufo-3","norway-2","poland-140","russia-white-list-1","vabb-shw"],"host_organization":"https://openalex.org/P4310320547","host_organization_name":"Taylor & Francis","host_organization_lineage":["https://openalex.org/P4310320547","https://openalex.org/P4310320449"],"host_organization_lineage_names":["Taylor & Francis","Informa"],"type":"journal"},"license":null,"license_id":null,"version":"publishedVersion","is_accepted":true,"is_published":true,"raw_source_name":"Justice Quarterly","raw_type":"journal-article"}],"best_oa_location":null,"sustainable_development_goals":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":1.0,"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"},{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/10","score":0.5,"display_name":"Reduced inequalities"}],"sustainable_development_goals_aurora":[{"id":"https://metadata.un.org/sdg/16","score":0.8199999928474426,"display_name":"Peace, justice, and strong institutions"}],"study_designs":[],"awards":[],"funders":[],"has_content":{"pdf":false,"grobid_xml":false},"content_urls":null,"referenced_works_count":22,"referenced_works":["https://openalex.org/W12658582","https://openalex.org/W605603799","https://openalex.org/W651060554","https://openalex.org/W1514111222","https://openalex.org/W1516737607","https://openalex.org/W1528538160","https://openalex.org/W1537814860","https://openalex.org/W1991846430","https://openalex.org/W2005543866","https://openalex.org/W2012732026","https://openalex.org/W2077023728","https://openalex.org/W2081065855","https://openalex.org/W2086640583","https://openalex.org/W2088763113","https://openalex.org/W2091717515","https://openalex.org/W2461932688","https://openalex.org/W2796638730","https://openalex.org/W3022037017","https://openalex.org/W4238221118","https://openalex.org/W4242373249","https://openalex.org/W4252973384","https://openalex.org/W4383956307"],"related_works":["https://openalex.org/W2081065855","https://openalex.org/W2097700776","https://openalex.org/W46506320","https://openalex.org/W3118958362","https://openalex.org/W4240464958","https://openalex.org/W2770044449","https://openalex.org/W4386933435","https://openalex.org/W1970297932","https://openalex.org/W4401034931","https://openalex.org/W2154835201"],"abstract_inverted_index":{"The":[0,173],"apparent":[1],"substantial":[2],"increase":[3],"in":[4,51,118,153],"hate":[5,49,76],"crime":[6],"during":[7],"the":[8,18,21,46,62,65,73,87,119,145,167,178],"1980s":[9],"has":[10],"led":[11],"to":[12,16,33,116,177,186],"two":[13,52],"responses;":[14],"legislation":[15],"expand":[17],"scope":[19],"of":[20,25,48,64,72,75,82,89,121,134,144,170,182],"law":[22],"and":[23,30,37,57,61,78,93,108,137,180],"severity":[24],"punishment":[26],"for":[27],"such":[28,41,171],"offenses,":[29],"police-initiated":[31],"efforts":[32,185],"focus":[34],"attention":[35],"on":[36,86],"more":[38,111,124],"fully":[39],"investigate":[40],"crimes.":[42,189],"This":[43],"paper":[44,174],"explores":[45],"characteristics":[47],"crimes":[50,77,84,100,115,136,152],"jurisdictions,":[53],"New":[54,96],"York":[55,97],"City":[56],"Baltimore":[58,127],"County,":[59,128],"Maryland,":[60],"responses":[63],"police.":[66],"Data":[67],"come":[68],"from":[69,79,157,166],"case":[70],"records":[71],"universe":[74],"a":[80,104],"sample":[81],"comparison":[83,114],"matched":[85],"basis":[88],"criminal":[90],"offense,":[91],"date,":[92],"precinct.":[94],"In":[95,126],"City,":[98],"bias":[99,135,162,188],"are":[101,109],"investigated":[102],"by":[103],"specialized":[105],"detective":[106],"unit":[107],"far":[110],"likely":[112],"than":[113],"result":[117],"arrest":[120],"one":[122],"or":[123],"perpetrators.":[125],"patrol":[129],"officers":[130],"conduct":[131],"follow-up":[132],"investigations":[133],"emphasize":[138],"victim":[139],"support":[140],"as":[141,163,165],"an":[142],"extension":[143],"police":[146,184],"department's":[147],"community-oriented":[148],"policing":[149],"policy.":[150],"Bias":[151],"both":[154],"jurisdictions":[155],"differ":[156],"similar":[158],"offenses":[159],"not":[160],"involving":[161],"well":[164],"public":[168],"image":[169],"offenses.":[172],"also":[175],"points":[176],"effects":[179],"limitations":[181],"special":[183],"address":[187]},"counts_by_year":[{"year":2026,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2025,"cited_by_count":7},{"year":2024,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2023,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2022,"cited_by_count":13},{"year":2021,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2020,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2019,"cited_by_count":6},{"year":2018,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2017,"cited_by_count":3},{"year":2016,"cited_by_count":4},{"year":2015,"cited_by_count":5},{"year":2014,"cited_by_count":2},{"year":2013,"cited_by_count":1},{"year":2012,"cited_by_count":5}],"updated_date":"2026-10-14T16:39:01.820549","created_date":"2016-06-24T00:00:00"}